Bio notes

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Chapter 1 "Introduction Ten Themes in the Study of Life"

- biological organization is based on hierarchy of structural levels atoms-molecules-organelles (components cells)-cells (subunits of organisms which are units of life & a multicellular cooperative)-tissue-organ-organism-population (localized group of organisms belonging to same species)-biological community (pop of diff species living in same area)-ecosystem (community rxns that include nonliving features of environment)

- multicultural organisms exhibit major structural levels above the cell 1) similar cells grouped into tissues ) specific arrangements of diff tissues form organs ) organs are grouped into organ systems

- w/each step upward in hierarchy of biological order, novel properties emerge that were not present @ simpler levels or organization which result from interactions between componentsCheap Custom Essays on bio notes

- scientists seeking to understand biological processes confront dilemmas 1) we cant fully explain a higher level of order by breaking it down into its parts ) the futility of trying to analyze something as complex as an organism or cell w/out taking it apart

- reductionism reducing complex systems to simpler components that are more manageable to study

- cell is lowest level of structure capable of performing all activities of life

- Hooke 1st described & named cells in 1665; Leeuwenhoek discovered organisms (single-celled); both finally acknowledged as universal units by Schleiden & Schwann (summarized that all living things consist of cells, basis of cell theory

- major kinds of cells 1) prokaryotic cells (DNA isn't separated from rest of cell in a nucleus) ) eukaryotic cells (subdivided by internal membrane into many diff functional compartments); they contrast sharply in complexity, but they have some key similarities

- biological instructions are encoded in the molecule DNA, its the substance of genes, made up of long chains arranged into a double helix, each chain composed of 4 kinds of chem building blocks (nucleotides)

- all forms of life employ essentially the same genetic code; "library" of genetic instruction (genome)

- inheritance itself depends on a mechanism for copying DNA & passing its sequence of chem letters on to offspring

- how a device works is correlated w/its structure form fits function

- an organism is an example of what scientists call an open system, an entity that exchanges materials & energy w/its surroundings

- interactions between organisms & their environment are interwoven to form fabric of an ecosystem which include 1) cycling of nutrients

) flow of energy from sunlight to photosynthetic life to organisms that feed on plants

- exchange of energy between an organism & its surroundings involves transformation of 1 form of energy to another

- life requires continual uptake o ordered energy & release of some unordered energy to surroundings

- organisms are able to obtain useful energy from fuel molecules such as sugar; regulation of chem rxns w/in cells centers on enzymes

- regulatory mechanisms determine precisely when, where, & how fast certain reactions occur in a cell

- many processes are self-regulating operating by feedback - feedback slows or stops processes & + feedback speeds up a process

- mammals & birds have a negative feedback system that keeps body temp w/in a narrow range (homeostasis)

- biologists have identified & named about 1.5 mill species; we group species into categories

- diff methods for categorizing 1) past decade we have used the 5 kingdoms ) new methods are by comparisons of DNA ) now domains

- domains Bacteria, Archaea, (both consist of organisms mostly unicellular w/prokaryotic cells) & Eukarya (organisms w/eucharistic cells)

- domain Eukarya Kingdom Protista (single-celled), Plantae, Fungi, & Animalia (multi-cellular & distinguished by their modes nutrition)

- evolution is 1 theme that ties together all others & unifies biology

- Darwin published The Origin of Species in 185 w/ concepts 1) contemporary species arose from a succession of ancestors thru a process of "descent w/modification" (evolution) ) how life evolves (natural selection an editing process)

- what began as 1 species could gradually diversify into many species as geographically isolated pop adapted over many generations to diff sets of environmental probs

- science is a way of knowing; types of exploration 1) discovery science & hypothetico-deductive science

- verifiable observations & measurements are the data of discovery science, enables us to describe life @ its many levels, can lead to important conclusions based on a type of logic (inductive reasoning) which is a generalization that summarizes many current observations

- hypothetico-deductive science uses scientific method & deductive logic to test hypotheses from general to specific, takes "if…then" logic

- in a controlled experiment, the set receives experimental treatment (experimental group) & the set that receives no experimental treatment (control group, which is vital), enables researchers to focus on responses to a single variable

- hypotheses must be testable

- facts in form of verifiable observations & repeatable experimental results are the pre-req for science

- some new theory that ties together a # of observations & experimental results that previously seemed unrelated

- theories only become widely accepted in science if they are supported by an accumulation of extensive & varied evidence

- science 1) a dependence on observations & measurements that others can verify ) requirement that ideas (hypotheses & theories) are testable by observations & experiments that others can repeat

- technology results from scientific discoveries applied to development of goods & services; tech has improved our standard of living

- science can help us identify problems & provide insight what course of action may prevent further damage

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