Witchcraft in Medieval england

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Witchcraft in Medieval England

You shall not permit a sorceress to live (Ex. 18).

Introduction

The ancient belief in witchcraft and magic has existed for a very long time, having been mentioned in the tales of Homer in ancient Greece and even in the Bible. Witches are supposed to be females that have supernatural powers for evil purposes. A male with such powers is called a warlock, sorcerer or wizard.

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The Craze

The first man to take action against heretics was John XXII, who was Pope from 116 to 14. A century later, in 1484, Pope Innocent VIII issued the "Summis Desiderantes," which condemned the practice of witchcraft, declaring it opposed to catholic faith. In Europe, the practice of witchcraft officially became a felony in 154 and was made a capital offence in 156. The situation immediately after 156 was unclear due to lost records but it is estimated that from about 1560s until around the 160s, this ancient belief in witchcraft got completely out of hand. Witch hunting crazes swept through Europe and even spread as far as the new world settlements in Salem, Massachusetts. Belongings confiscated from the victims were usually given to the witch hunters, which further encouraged them. Victims of the witch trials have been estimated to number from hundreds of thousands to the millions.

Witchcraft in England

The witchcraft craze in England was not as hysterical as other parts of Europe, such as Germany, and parts of America, such as Salem. It is thought to be because the goods confiscated off the accused in England went to the Crown and not the locals, unlike in the other countries. However, England was not completely unaffected. Witch trials and executions rose steadily, especially in the southeast and in the town of Essex. They peaked at around the 1600s and declined within a few decades.

England also had some professional witch hunters, of which the most famous was Matthew Hopkins from Essex. He claimed that he could detect witches, all for fee, of course. Matthew Hopkins was the "Witch-Finder General" and was involved in the accusation of two hundred and fifty witches and one hundred executions.

What Distinguishes a Witch?

A high percentage of the people accused for practicing witchcraft were female midwives because it was believed that they had access to the evil spirit in unbaptised stillborn babies. It was also believed that virgins could not be witches. All witches were believed to have distinguishing marks on their body. When these "witch-marks" were pricked pin, it did not hurt the person. Records show that the "witch-marks" were likely to be located on exposed parts of the body such as the back of the neck. Witches were also believed to have a "familiar," which is an animal, usually a cat or a toad, which can turn into the devil and carry messages for the witch. Also, witches were believed to have regular social meetings (eg, Sabbaths) and be most active on the 0th of April and the 1st of October.

The Trials

There were many different ways of trailing an accused witch, most of which ended with the witch dying whether they were proven guilty or innocent. One method called "swimming the witch." This consisted of tying the victims hands and feet together and throwing them into deep water. If they floated, it was a sign of evil possession and if they sank, it proved them to be innocent. A variation of this trial consisted of tying the accused witch to a makeshift chair and continuously dunking them into a lake. If they survived, this proved that they could save themselves using magic. If they drowned, their innocence was proved.

Another method of trailing a witch consisted of throwing the accused witch off a cliff. If they used magic to save themselves, they were considered to be guilty and if they fell to their death, then they were innocent. The method that produced the most amounts of 'guilty witches was using torture, as the accused often confessed to being a witch just to stop the torment.

If a witch were to be proven guilty, they would be tied to a stake surrounded by hay, dry leaves and twigs and burned to death.

The Closing Stages

A few decades later at around the 160s, the witchcraft craze slowly died down. The last execution took place in the district of Exeter, Devon in 1685. The last trial took place in 171. In England in 17, the death sentence against witches was repealed. Soon after, other European countries followed suit. Overall, the executions that took place in England were mild compared to many other parts of Europe. It is unlikely that there were more than 500 deaths.

During the second half of the 17th century, sceptism of the existence of witchcraft grew among educated people, largely due to more new scientific ideas. However, the belief in witchcraft never really faded until the 0th century where factors like better communication and mass schooling eroded most belief in witchcraft. However, there is still a small percentage of the population in the world today that still believes in a little magic.

Conclusion

Today when we look back on the witch trials of the past, some say that the persecutions were earnest attempts by Christians to stamp out superstitions; some say that they were merely an excuse to take property from others while some say that it was really just a huge overreaction to a threat to their way of life. No matter the reason for the witch trials and executions, we need to learn from this mistake in our past and make sure nothing like that ever happens again.

Bibliography

1.Text - "Time, Continuity and Change" written by Meg Grey Blanden. Published by Longmand in 17.

.Text "The Oxford Companion to British History" Edited by John Cannon.

Published by the Oxford University Press in 17.

. Encyclopaedia Britannica CD ROM, 18.

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Animals

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Partnering

1.An industry in which partnering is pertinent between manufacturers is the motor car manufacturing industry. The company I will be elaborating on will be Holden and its various supplier partnerships.

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Stage 1- Develop partnering briefing

Holden has a system of initiating a partnership briefing with employees that may be involved in the process. They have been undertaking partnering alliances for some time now so are a well versed organisation in that respect. They run through the briefing with the potential involved employees explaining the concept and providing feedback to any queries employees may have.

Stage - Identify Potential Partners

Holden has based its overall strategy on partnering and so always looks to form alliances with various internal and external suppliers and customers. Partnering is more prevalent in their components supplier relationships. They have identified and experienced many benefits in partnering with manufacturers of their component requirements.

Stage -Identify Key Decision Makers

In being a well known name Holden has no problem in attracting and identifying top level executives from their various potential partner suppliers. The key decision makers are identified and negotiated with by the Holden team.

Stage 4-Conduct Partnering Briefing

Holden systematically engages in a partnering briefing with key decision makers from both Holden and the potential partner being present in a negotiating forum. The concept is explained and each sides responsibilities are outlined. The resulting mutual benefits are explained also, which generally with Holden includes quality improvements and cost cutting for both sides.

Stage 5-Determine the Level of Commitment

Holden gauges the level of commitment from their potential partners and work with them to discuss any changes in agreement processes they may desire. Holdens terms are usually sufficient to satisfy potential partners.

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Television Today

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SATURDAYS HAVE become the worst nights on television with nothing worth watching but at least this week we can look forward to that annual rite, the Eurovision Song Contest. Most people might consider it terribly pass but youd be surprised how many viewers do tune in anyway.

The contest has changed and improved over the years, the songs might be as forgettable as ever but there is audience participation now with telephone voting in most countries instead of those anonymous juries we accused or suspected of political and cultural bias. The monopoly of the half dozen countries who always used to win has been broken by the former East European countries who are not only eager to participate but to put on great shows as we saw in Tallinn last year. A refreshing change from some winning countries in the past who seemed to actively resent the fact that they had to host the event yet again and invested little planning or imagination into the night itself.

Most important of all, of course, the entries are now in English, the international language of pop, so everyone can at least understand the words and people no longer vote in language blocs. If the twelve points from Cyprus to Greece and vice versa used to raise a laugh (or booing in some cases) from the audience, so did the high points given by the Scandinavians to each other. Custom writing service can write essays on Television Today

Cyprus will probably give Greece top points as usual this year but then Mantos song has had maximum exposure not only on CyBC but the commercial channels as well. Though one has to say CyBC as the participating broadcaster has been more than fair screening all entries over and over again as well as showcasing some of this years singers on its Efharisto Savvatovrado variety programme.

It seems to be CyBCs week for once, even if it is a brief (and probably final) flash in the pan. Besides the song contest the station will also be screening the Champions League climactic match live on Wednesday, which should improve its AGB ratings no end. After that, who knows when the corporation will be able to attract a reasonable proportion of viewers again because it has lost its important football card to LTV which has won the screening rights to Champions League as from next season.

Hopefully the management has already put on its thinking caps because that loss is going to leave some massive gaps to fill in come next September and the schedulers wont really be able to fudge around making do with figure skating, rhythmic gymnastics, athletics and various EBU sponsored contests and events for nine months until the Olympic Games in Athens in 004.

As for Olympics coverage, it might not even put the corporation into the black again (if anything ever could) because Cypriots will be able to watch the events direct from the newly launched Hellas Sat for the price of a relatively small communications dish. At least thats the impression I got from the rather guarded comments by the experts when they were discussing the advantages of the satellite.

All that is in the future, we still have to live through another summer of endless repeats (on all channels), spiced up by fascinating local events like public rows between the church hierarchy and politicians trying to guess what to do next about the Cyprus Problem.

Time for me to take a break and pass over the column and film reviews to Athena Karsera for three weeks with the hope that I will feel less jaded or the television scene has miraculously improved by the time I return.

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