High temperature material on aerinautics engine

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High temperature

materials

for aero-engines

George FrenchCustom writing service can write essays on High temperature material on aerinautics engine

Philippe Grangier

Richard Halliday

Steven Farmer

Summary

1- Introduction

- Turbine composition and temperature

- Metals alloys

4- Ceramics

5-Thermal barrier coatings

6- Conclusion

7- Bibliography

Introduction

Since Sir Isaac Newton, in the 18th century, was the first to theorise that a rearward-channelled explosion could propel a machine forward at a great rate of speed, people have started to imagine that they could fly.

In 10, the Wright Brothers flew, The Flyer, with a 1 horse power gas powered engine.

But it was Frank Whittle, a British pilot, who designed the first turbo jet engine in 10. The first Whittle engine successfully flew in April, 17. This engine featured a multistage compressor, and a combustion chamber, a single stage turbine and a nozzle.

The first jet aeroplane to successfully use this type of engine was the German Heinkel He 178 invented by Hans Von Ohain. It was the worlds first turbojet powered flight.

Since this date, the engineers start to developed this kind of engine because they can offer more power to make the plane fly faster and Higher. Improvements in the performance of gas turbine have been intimately linked to the development of materials technologies for high-temperature components.

It¡¦s now over half a century since Franck Whittle and Otto Von Ohain demonstrated the practicality of aircraft powered by gas turbines. Engine performance and durability have been limited by the availability of suitable materials for the very high temperatures and high stresses endured by many of the components. Over the past 50-60 year, materials have been steadily developed so that peak metal temperatures of over 1100„aC¡K

Now the hot parts of the engine require materials which can operate at 1000„aC, the cooler parts at 600„aC. Furthermore, the environment is very harsh chemically and mechanical, with very large forces generated by the high rotational speeds and even the possibility of birds being sucked into the engine!

The maximum service temperature chart (on the bottom) is a useful way of identifying new possibilities for materials development. By drawing lines at 600¢XC and 1000¢XC it is possible to identify the materials classes which might be suitable in this case, namely metals and ceramics.

But the figure below shows that the remarkable improvements in aero-engine performance have come about because the materials designer has been able to provide the engineer with materials can be used at hotter temperatures. Higher engine temperatures are needed so that the engines can run more efficiently, while weight reductions require stiffer, stronger, and lighter materials. What will the future reserved to the engineers? The next generation of gas turbine will reach temperature of 1600„aC, so we need to foresee what the next generation of high temperature material will be.

At the present time titanium and nickel alloys are used for the low and high temperature parts, but some other solution have already been developed for allow highest temperature in aero-engine, and the future research are concerned with ceramics which appear to have the best high temperature properties.

That¡¦s why this report reviews some of the existing solutions with today¡¦s alloys, and try to explain how metal alloy can be use. It show also how we can use a combination of ceramics coatings and metal alloy to increase the operating temperature until the next development of ceramics.

Turbine composition and temperature

The basic mechanical arrangement of a gas turbine is relatively simple. It consists of only four parts

1. The compressor which is used to increase the pressure (and temperature) of the inlet air.

. One or a number of combustion chambers in which fuel is injected into the high-pressure air as a fine spray, and burned, thereby heating the air. The pressure remains (nearly) constant during combustion, but as the temperature rises, each kilogram of hot air needs to occupy a larger volume than it did when cold and therefore expands through the turbine.

. The turbine which converts some of this temperature rise to rotational energy. This energy is used to drive the compressor.

4. The exhaust nozzle which accelerates the air using the remainder of the energy added in the combustor, producing a high velocity jet exhaust.

The amount of fuel added to the air will depend upon the temperature rise required. However, the maximum temperature is limited to within the range of 850 to 1700 ¢XC by the materials from which the turbine blades and nozzles are made. The air has already been heated to between 00 and 550 ¢XC by the work done in the compressor giving a temperature rise requirement of 650 to 1150 ¢XC from the combustion process

So the continuous flow of gas to which the turbine is exposed may enter the turbine at a temperature between 850 and 1700 ¢XC which is far above the melting point of current materials technology.

That¡¦s why, until the development of the high temperature material, engineers has developed tricks to cool the material used in their aero-engine. Because by cooling the material during its operation, they can increase the operating temperature of the turbine.

Materials scientists have worked hard to increase the operating temperature of todays alloys, and for reaching this aims they have made the following modification and use the following tricks

- turbine blades are grown as single crystals, because these are more resistant to creep (gradual changes in dimensions under stress and temperature);

- current nickel superalloys contain expensive alloying elements such as Hafnium and Rhenium in order to increase their high temperature performance;

- turbine blades have little networks of holes to air-cool the blade surface.

Metals alloys

In Aero Engines the development of highly engineered super alloys has become necessary.

Developments in advanced materials have contributed to the spectacular progress in thrust-to-weight ratio of the aero engine. And also this has enabled significant improvements in performance and reliability. Most modern jet engines contain at least 50% nickel based superalloys. This has been achieved mainly through the substitution of titanium and nickel alloys for steel. Aluminium has virtually disappeared from the aero engine, and the future projection illustrates the potential for composites of various types. the design of the aero engine requires a much wider range of materials than the airframe due to the large temperature range at which it must be run. The airframe is still mainly aluminium due to the lower requirements.

Aeropropulsion turbines will eventually use more of the light advanced high-temperature materials such as intermetallics, carbon matrix composites, and metal matrix composites. However, enhancements in coatings and cooling have extended the performance and value of nickel-based superalloys, so they are not yet out of the running.

In aero-engines, the blade of the high pressure turbine was for a long time the highest of the high technology in the aero gas turbine, and despite the complexity of the modern fan blade, the challenge it provides does not reduce. The ability to run at increasingly high gas temperatures has resulted from a combination of material improvements and the development of more sophisticated arrangements for internal and external cooling

1-Modern Alloys

A modern turbine blade alloy is complex in that it contains up to ten significant alloying elements, but its microstructure is very simple. The structure is analogous to an `Inca wall, which consisted of rectangular blocks of stone stacked in a regular array with narrow bands of cement to hold them together.

In the alloy case the `blocks are an intermetallic compound with the approximate composition Ni(Al,Ta), whereas the `cement is a nickel solid solution containing chromium, tungsten and rhenium. Magnesium alloys.

Magnesium alloy developments have traditionally been driven by aerospace industry requirements for lightweight materials to operate under increasingly demanding conditions such as high temperature ranges. Magnesium alloys have always been attractive to designers due to their low density, only two thirds that of aluminium. This has been a major factor in the widespread use of magnesium alloy castings and wrought products.

A further requirement in recent years has been for superior corrosion performance and dramatic improvements have been demonstrated for new magnesium alloys. Improvements in mechanical properties and corrosion resistance have led to greater interest in magnesium alloys for aerospace and speciality applications.

-Titanium alloys.

The high strength and low density of titanium and its alloys have from the first ensured a positive role for the metal in aero-engine applications. It is difficult to imagine how current levels of performance, engine power to weight ratios, strength, aircraft speed and range and other critical factors could be achieved without titanium.

Since the 150¡¦s, this temperature level has risen by about 00¢XC. Titanium alloys have progressively improved in temperature capability up to 60¢XC. Titanium alloys capable of operating at temperatures from sub zero to 600¢XC are used in engines for discs, blades, shafts and casings from the front fan to the last stage of the high pressure compressor, and at the rear end of the engine for lightly loaded fabrications such as plug and nozzle assemblies. This would allow most compressors to be designed completely in titanium. However, practice in the United States has been to switch at approximately 50¢XC to nickel alloys and incur a weight penalty.

-Beryllium.

The metal its self has a steel grey appearance. It has an extremely high melting point 10¢XC (54¢XF) and is the most lightweight except for magnesium of the common metals. It is nonmagnetic, has approximately 40% the electrical conductivity of copper and has a modulus of elasticity one third greater that of steel. It exhibits high permeability to X-rays. Beryllium powder can be hot pressed into blocks or billet form and can be thermo-mechanically processed to extrude billet and cross-rolled sheet. Beryllium parts are generally made by machining from blocks. This tends to leave behind a damaged surface layer, which is removed by etching for stressed applications.

Beryllium is used in applications where it is required for materials to be non sparking, non-magnetic and for components to be light weight, stiff and dimensionally stable. It can be used as an alloying element to produce beryllium-aluminium, beryllium-copper, and beryllium-nickel alloys.

4-Nickel.

Nickel based alloys dominate the high temperature area of aero engines mainly due to the increase of stable intermetallic super phases which strengthens the nickel matrix. Nickel based alloys are used for stationary components in aero engines. Modern jet engines contain at least 50% nickel based super alloys.

5-Super alloys.

Superalloys have always contained phases of this type, but in recent years the titanium in the original intermetallic has been replaced by tantalum. This change gave improved high temperature strength, and also improved oxidation resistance. However, the biggest change has occurred in the nickel, where high levels of tungsten and rhenium are present. These elements are very effective in solution strengthening.

6-Intermetallics.

Another material development project is the use of intermetallics. Compounds of nickel/aluminium and titanium/aluminium have been investigated with current emphasis on the latter. Most intermetallic compounds are brittle at room temperature. The first applications are therefore likely to be in small components such static and rotating compressor airfoils where the advantages over titanium include higher specific strength and stiffness as well as improved temperature and fire resistance.

The use of these materials could extend to more critical components. One possible application is as an alternative matrix to the titanium alloy in a metal matrix composite, although such an application will require alternative fibres, to minimise any thermal expansion mismatch, and novel processing technology.

7-The Future.

Eventually, operating temperatures up to about 800¢XC will be possible, and intermetallics could offer a very attractive weight saving of around 50% compared with nickel-based alloys. It is estimated that over the next twenty years a 00¢XC increase in turbine entry gas temperature will be required to meet the airlines demand for improved performance. Some of this increase will be made possible by the further adoption of thermal barrier coatings. These coatings are produced from ceramic pre-cursors and have the potential to contribute about 100¢XC through the protection they provide.

Ceramics

1-History

Since the mid-140s, researchers have investigated ceramic materials as a way to improve the performance of aero-engines, lengthen their life span, and reduce their fuel consumption substantially. Yet ceramics are just now approaching their first commercial use in turbines.

The problems involved have made progress slow. The material in modern turbines must survive temperatures of more than 1,000¢XC for thousands of hours; high thermal stresses caused by rapid temperature changes and large temperature gradients; high mechanical stresses; low and high frequency vibration loading; chemical reactions with adjacent components; oxidation; corrosion; and effects such as creep, stress rupture, and cyclic fatigue. Early ceramic materials were not able to withstand these conditions, and early turbine-component designs were not compatible with brittle materials.

A variety of oxides, borides, carbides, and cermets were evaluated in the 140s and 150s for potential use as turbine components. Some ceramics had favourable strength and oxidation resistance, but none survived the thermal shock conditions imposed by an engine. Some cermets could survive thermal shock and impact conditions but did not have adequate oxidation resistance and stress rupture life.

Interest was renewed in ceramics for turbines when new materials in the silicon nitride and silicon carbide families of ceramics were developed during the 160s. These materials had better thermal shock resistance, largely due to a combination of low thermal expansion, high strength, and moderate thermal conductivity. The first promising silicon nitride and silicon carbide materials were fabricated by reaction sintering. The silicon nitride was prepared by a reaction of a powder compact of silicon with nitrogen to form silicon nitride. This resulted in a reaction-bonded silicon nitride (RBSN) material. It was found that this material was strong (140MPa) up to a high temperature(1,400¢XC), but the material weakened over time when exposed at high temperature to an oxidising atmosphere. The silicon carbide was prepared by reacting a mixed powder compact of silicon carbide plus carbon with molten silicon to form an SiC-bonded silicon carbide, with any pores filled with silicon. Early reaction-sintered silicon carbide materials had strength that was similar to RBSN and superior oxidation resistance, making it more desirable.

Major efforts have been conducted world-wide since the early 170s to improve the high-temperature properties of silicon nitride. Some have focused on finding a composition with a higher-temperature intergranular glass phase; others have focused on compositions that can be heat-treated to crystallise the grain-boundary phase and avoid the glass phase. Only recently have the properties been adequate to consider long-life applications.

Ceramic turbine components are fabricated starting with powders of the raw materials. The quality of the final part depends on the quality of the starting powder and on each step in the fabrication process. Early powders were coarse and contained impurities, and they were not widely available until the mid-170s. Around that time, researchers demonstrated that silicon nitride and silicon carbide could be densified by pressureless sintering if the starting powder was of very small particle size. Powder synthesis techniques were refined during the 180s, making powders with a smaller particle size and relatively high purity available.

Research during the 10s has been concerned with improving the properties of sintered materials to minimise flaw size and refining the microstructure to increase fracture toughness. Higher fracture toughness means a larger critical flaw size for a given stress. Whereas the early materials had a critical flaw size around 150 microns for a 00MPa stress, the improved materials can withstand flaws several times larger. Fracture toughness is extremely important in aero-engine materials due to the high rotational speeds involved, and also to withstand bird strikes etc.

-Present

At the moment, toughness means that ceramics are still not used on a large scale in aero-engines although it has the best high temperature properties

PropertyMetalsCeramics

Toughness (bird strikes)GoodVery Poor

Corrosion/oxidation resistanceFairGood

FormingGood (forging)Fair (sintering)

JoiningGoodDifficult

Creep resitanceFairGood

CostHighHigh

-Future

Over the next 0 years, demand for improved performance means that gas entry temperatures will have to rise by 00„aC.

Looking at this table shows that the strength and especially the maximum service temperatures of ceramics means that some form of ceramic must be considered which will overcome the toughness limitation. One method is the use of ceramics as Thermal Barrier Coatings.

Thermal barrier coatings

So far ceramic components have not found application within aero engines because no one has yet been able to develop a method for increasing the fracture toughness of ceramics to a level which would allow them to survive application in the hottest parts of such engines. Although metals have a significantly higher fracture toughness, they are also less resistant to high temperatures, which have the effect of accelerating corrosion and creep. The turbine blades, which experience high centrifugal forces due to the high rotation speeds, are at the greatest risk of creep. Indeed it is known that the creep life of turbine blades is halved for every 10-15„aC increase in operating temperature.

A common method for combining the best qualities of both types of material is to use a thermal barrier coating (TBC). TBC¡¦s are ceramic coatings which are applied to the surface of the metal components to insulate them from the high surrounding temperatures. The coatings are applied to parts such as burner cans, flame holders or turbine vane segments in order to protect the substrate material from too high operating temperatures or too severe thermal shocks.

The most widely used TBC is yttria stabilised zirconia (ZrO-8%YO). The main advantages of using yttria stabilised zirconia as a TBC material lies in its low thermal conductivity, a thermal expansion coefficient close to that of the substrate material, and a

good resistance to thermal shocks.

It is important that the thermal expansion coefficient is similar to that of the substrate metal because otherwise a significant thermal strain would be imposed as the coating expands by a greater or lesser amount than the substrate. If this were to happen then the repeated stress caused by this thermal strain would cause the coating to fail in a relatively short time span.

The lifetime of the coating is decided both by its stability at the high operating temperatures and by its adhesion to the component under cyclic thermal loading. Even though the coating is chosen so that it has a similar thermal expansion coefficient to the substrate material, relatively minor thermal strains can be accentuated by the high temperatures and the regular cycles experienced by the engines. The regular rapid temperature changes from atmospheric temperature when shut down, to operating temperature can still result in fatigue failure of the bond between the coating and the substrate.

It is for this reason that typical coatings consist of a bonding layer between the component and the thermal barrier coating. The bond coat enhances the adhesion of the component with the overlying coating and will usually also be required to act as a barrier to prevent oxidation of the metal component underneath. This is because the TBC on it¡¦s own is relatively porous and, although provides excellent thermal insulation, it provides minimal protection against corrosion. Obviously any corrosion of the surface of the substrate would result in the bond between the coating and the substrate becoming weaker, potentially to the point where it fails.

The main limitations of yttria stabilised zirconia are that at high temperatures the material properties begin to change. Densification due to sintering and phase transformation to more stable phases involving volume expansions are obviously undesirable phenomena that can be seen at temperatures above 150 ¢XC. This temperature is therefore often used as the maximum design temperature when working with this material.

Because of these limitations, alternatives to YSZ are being sought as temperatures are expected to continue to rise as higher efficiency engines having higher power to weight ratios are being designed. The main demand for these higher performance engines predictably comes from the military, because of a strong trend in the development of military engines to decrease the amount of cooling media used for cooling of the components in the hot sections of the engine, which will increase the thermal load on turbine components. Calculations indicate coating surface temperatures as high as 1400 ¢XC in future applications. This will most possibly require development of new coating materials with high temperature stability. This means that a suitable material will undergo no severe phase transformations and a have a high resistance to sintering, but still have a low thermal conductivity coefficient and a high resistance to thermal shock failure.

One possible way to increase the operating temperature of the TBC is simply to use a thicker coating. Current TBC¡¦s are around 0.-0.4mm thick. However, standard production procedures of thick TBC¡¦s (1 mm) result in coatings with an insufficient thermal shock life. The main problem with thick thermal barrier coatings is that the higher temperature gradient across the material results in higher internal stresses which in turn lead to higher stresses at the interface between the coating and the bonding layer between the substrate and the coating.

This means that over time there is a greater risk that a thick TBC will fail due to the fatigue caused at the bond interface by the thermal cycling associated with aero engines.

Until now, studies with thick TBC¡¦s have been with YSZ which still has an operating limit of 150„aC because it is unstable at higher temperatures and the strain tolerance of the coating can be lost rapidly if too high coating surface temperatures are allowed.

Because of this temperature ceiling of YSZ, there is a continual need to try to find a better material for the job. Certain rare earth zirconates such as GdZrO7 and SmZrO7, have been shown to have lower thermal conductivity than YSZ, but the fact that YSZ is stable at high temperatures when in contact with alumina, which is the oxide formed on the surface of all present bond coat alloys at high temperatures, and the fact that YSZ has a similar thermal expansion coefficient to the nickel based substrate material, will make it hard to replace as a TBC.

Conclusion

The temperature in the aero engine is still increasing and materials scientists have to develop more and more suitable materials. By looking at the development of aero engine, we see that the next generation of aero engine will work at 1600„aC. Ceramics are not available because of their resistance properties, but by combination of the thermal barrier coatings and the metals alloys which have been developed since a long time, we can imagine that scientists have already find the solution for this next generation of engine.

But the progress in aero engine science will not stop, and the working temperature of aero engine will keep increase. But the research on the ceramics will go on because they seem to have many qualities required for work at high temperature, and they are already use in ceramic coatings. But they can maybe offer more if we can use them alone. Ceramics, the way ahead? The future will tell us¡K

Bibliography

Materials world,vol.4,16, ¡¨advanced materials mean advanced engine¡¨

Stewart Miller

¡§The contribution of advanced high-temperature materials to the future of aero-engine¡¨

Article from Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 15 Part L

M R Winstone, A Partridge, J W Brooks,

¡§High temperature structural materials¡¨

Chapman and Hall, 16

¡§Advantages/disadvantages of various TBC systems as perceived by engine manufacturer¡¨

Article from thermal barrier coatings, nato agard report 8, 18

P Morrell , D S Rickerbery

¡§Engineering approaches to high temperature design¡¨

B Wilshire and D.R J Owen

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Lab

If you order your custom term paper from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on Lab. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality Lab paper right on time.

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Purpose The purpose of this lab was to determine the melting point of p-Dichlorobenzene.

Materials 100ml beakerThermometer

Melting point tubeRubber band

Hot PlateSeveral crystals of p-Dichlorobenzene Help with essay on Lab

Glass RunnerRing Stand

Extension ClampTriple Arm Clamp

Apparatus See Attached Sheet

Procedure

1)Fill a beaker with several pieces of ice and water. Place the thermometer into the ice water submerging the reservoir of alcohol. Keep submerged until the liquid in the thermometer stops its decent. Record the temperature at which the thermometer read.

)Construct the apparatus, (see diagram on other sheet).

)Place the ice filled beaker aside. Turn the hot plate on to a setting of ten. Fill the other beaker with 100 ml of water. Place beaker on the hot plate so the thermometers reservoir is submerged. When the water begins to boil record the temperature.

4)Empty the boiling water and turn the hot plate off so it does not get too hot. Using the melting point tube, collect several crystals of p-Dichlorobenzene. Due this by thrusting the open side into the container of p-Dichlorobenzene. Place the melting point tube open end up into the glass runner. Drop the melting point tube allowing it to slide down the tube forcing the p-Dichlorobenzene to the bottom.

5)Place the thermometer into the ice water until the temperature returns to that roughly of the room.

6)Attach the melting point tube to the thermometer using the rubber band and fill the second beaker will water.

7)Turn the hot plate back up to ten. Place the beaker on the hot plate again submerging the thermometers reservoir.

8)Observe the crystals of p-Dichlorobenzene. As soon as one begins to melt look at the temperature and record it.

)Remove the thermometer and place it into the ice water allowing it to cool and the p-Dichlorobenzene to crystallize. Turn off the hot plate and dispose of the water.

10)Repeat steps seven through nine several more times. Record all data.

Results

Observations

1)The Average melting point of p-Dichlorobenzene is 5.4°C.

)The substance p-Dichlorobenzene can re-crystallize.

)Water boils at 100°C and it freezes at 0°C.

Data

Data collected for the substance p-Dichlorobenzene

Trial 1Trial Trial Avg.

Melting Point in °C5.5.75.65.4

Calculations

Graph See Attached Sheet

Discussion

In conclusion, the substance p-Dichlorobenzene has an average melting point of 5.4°C. Also, p-Dichlorobenzene can re-crystallize, when the temperature gets cold enough. Another conclusion I came to in this lab was that the melting point of p-Dichlorobenzene is lower than the boiling point of water. In addition, its freezing point is higher than that of water.

One source of error could have been the time it took me too first realizes the p-Dichlorobenzene was melting then look at the temperature. This would have raised the temperature which I recorded. Another source of error could have been the re-crystallizing of the p-Dichlorobenzene. It might have changed a slight bit or was more of a liquid than before. This could have raised or lowered my recorded temperature for its melting point. My percent error was .755%.

Real life applications for p-Dichlorobenzene include the fumigation of agricultural fields and for mothproofing clothes. It can be used for these purposes because p-Dichlorobenzene is a toxin that acts as a pesticide.

Please note that this sample paper on Lab is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Lab, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on Lab will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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LBJ and FCR

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President Compare and Contrast Franklin D. Roosevelt and Lyndon B. Johnson

Franklin Roosevelt and Lyndon Johnson were both very important leaders of the twentieth century. Both presidents lead the country through hard times, war, and victory. Through both leaders the country gained many strengths.

Roosevelt was the thirty-second president of the United States and Johnson followed shortly behind as the thirty-sixth President. Johnson was actually one of Roosevelts personal protgs. Both Presidents had a passion for politics and pursued their passion without fear. Both presidents came from different worlds, though. Roosevelt came from a predominantly wealthy family as where Johnsons father struggled to raise his family. But, both Presidents have so much in common with the way they lead their country and a few differences. Lets start with the life of Roosevelt.

As mentioned before, Roosevelt was the thirty-second president of the United States. He was born January 0, 188. The Roosevelts had been moderately wealthy for many generations. Franklin was often in the care of a governess and tutors. Later in life he entered Harvard University and was a reasonably good student. He also met and determined to marry his cousin, Eleanor, to his mothers annoyance. Despite his mothers opposition, they were married in 105, and Franklin entered Columbia University Law School. He prepared for the bar examinations and without taking a degree became a lawyer and entered a clerkship in a Wall Street firm. It was later recalled that he had remarked to fellow clerks that he meant somehow to enter politics and finally to become president. There was never any doubt of his ambition. Order College Papers on LBJ and FCR

Roosevelts chance came in 110. He accepted the Democratic nomination for the New York Senate and was elected. Although his backing had come from Democrats affiliated with New York Citys notorious Tammany Hall, he joined a group of upstate legislators who were setting out to oppose the election of Tammanys choice for U.S. senator. The Tammany fight made Roosevelt famous in New York. He was reelected in 11. That year Woodrow Wilson was elected president; Roosevelt had been a campaign worker, and his efforts had been noticed by prominent party elder Josephus Daniels. When Daniels became secretary of the Navy in Wilsons Cabinet, he persuaded Wilson to offer Roosevelt the assistant secretary ship.

As assistant secretary, Roosevelt began an experience that substituted for the naval career he had hoped for as a boy. Before long he became restless, however, and tried to capture the Democratic nomination for U.S. senator from New York. America soon entered the war, however, and Roosevelt could work for a cause he believed in. At that time there was only one assistant secretary, and he had extensive responsibilities. Though Roosevelt tried several times to leave his civilian post to join the fighting forces, he was persuaded to remain. The American armies had saved Europe and the Europeans were ungrateful. Resentment and disillusion were widespread. The Republican Party had the advantage of not having been responsible for these foreign entanglements. In 10 they nominated Warren G. Harding, a conservative senator, as their presidential candidate. The Democrats nominated Governor James Cox of Ohio, who had had no visible part in the Wilson administration; the vice-presidential candidate was Roosevelt. It was a despairing campaign; but in one respect it was a beginning rather than an ending for Roosevelt. He made a much more noticeable campaign effort than the presidential candidate. He covered the nation by special trains, speaking many times a day, often from back platforms, and getting acquainted with local leaders everywhere. He had learned the professional politicians breeziness, was able to absorb useful information, and had an infallible memory for names and faces. The defeat was decisive; but Roosevelt emerged as the most representative Democrat.

In the summer of 11, vacationing in Canada, he became mysteriously ill. His disease, poliomyelitis, was not immediately diagnosed. He was almost totally paralyzed, however, and had to be moved to New York for treatment. He would never recover the use of his legs, a disability that seemed to end his political career.

In 1 he tried the warm mineral waters of Warm Springs, Georgia, where exercise was easier. While at Warm Springs in 18, Roosevelt was called to political duty again, this time by Al Smith, whom he had put in nomination at the Democratic conventions of 14 and 18. Almost at once, however, it became clear that Smith could not win the election. He felt, however, that Roosevelt, as candidate for governor, would help to win New York. He ran and was narrowly elected.

Roosevelt began the 4 years of his New York governorship that were preliminary to his presidency, and since he was reelected years later, it was inevitable that he should be the candidate in 1. Since 1 the nation had been sunk in the worst depression of its history, and Herbert Hoovers Republican administration had failed to find a way to recovery. This made it a favorable year for the Democrats. It would be more true to say that Hoover in 1 lost than that Roosevelt won. Roosevelt came to the presidency with a dangerous economic crisis at its height. Industry was paralyzed, and unemployment afflicted some 0 percent of the work force. Roosevelt had promised that something would be done.

Roosevelt began providing relief on a large scale by giving work to the unemployed and by approving a device for bringing increased income to farmers, who were in even worse straits than city workers. Also, he devalued the currency and enabled debtors to discharge debts that had long been frozen. Closed banks all over the country were assisted to reopen, and gradually the crisis was overcome. In 14, Roosevelt proposed a comprehensive social security system that, he hoped, would make another such depression impossible. Citizens would never be without at least minimum incomes again. Incidentally, these citizens became devoted supporters of the President who had given them this hope. In spite of the conservatives who opposed the measures he collectively called the New Deal, he became so popular that he won reelection in 16 by an unprecedented majority. His second term began with a struggle between himself and the Supreme Court. The justices had held certain of his New Deal devices to be unconstitutional. In retaliation he proposed to add new justices who would be more amenable. Many even in his own party opposed him in this attempt to pack the Court, and Congress defeated it.

Nevertheless in 140 Roosevelt determined to break with tradition and run for a third term. His reasons were partly that his reforms were far from finished, but more importantly that he was now certain of Adolf Hitlers intention to subdue Europe and go on to further conquests. Europe would be defeated unless the United States came to its support.

The presidential campaign of 140 was the climax of Roosevelts plea that Americans set themselves against the Nazi threat. He had sought to prepare the way in numerous speeches but had had a most disappointing response. So strong was American reluctance to be involved in another world war that in the last speeches of this campaign Roosevelt practically promised that young Americans would never be sent abroad to fight. Luckily his opponent, Republican Wendell Willkie, also favored support for the Allies. The campaign, won by a narrow majority, gave Roosevelt no mandate for intervention.

Roosevelt was not far into his third term, however, when the decision to enter the war was made for him by the Japanese, whose attack on Pearl Harbor caused serious losses to American forces there. Almost at once the White House became headquarters for those who controlled the strategy of what was now World War II. Roosevelt firmly believed that the first problem was to help the British, and then, when Hitler turned east, to somehow get arms to the Soviets. The Japanese could be taken care of when Europe was safe. Roosevelt wanted an early crossing of the English Channel to retake France and to force Hitler to fight on two fronts. Eventually an Allied crossing to Sicily and a slow, costly march up the Italian peninsula, correlated with the attack across the English Channel, forced the Italian collapse and the German surrender. After the German surrender, the Pacific war was brought to an end by the American atomic bomb explosion over the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. By this time Roosevelt was dead. He had not participated in that doubtful decision; but he had been, with Churchill, in active command during the war until then.

Completely exhausted, Roosevelt had gone to Warm Springs early in 145. He had recently returned from a conference of Allied leaders at Yalta, where he had forced acceptance of his scheme for a United Nations and made arrangements for the Soviet Union to assist in the final subjugation of Japan. At Warm Springs he prepared the address to be used at San Francisco, where the meeting to ratify agreements concerning the United Nations was to be held. He finished signing papers on the morning of April 1, 145, and within hours he suffered a massive cerebral hemorrhage and died. His body was transported by train to Washington D.C., where he was buried in Hyde Park.

Roosevelt will always be known as the president who brought the country out of the "Great Depression" and for his strategies that helped in the victory of World War II. Many consider him a hero of the times. Johnson was not far from the same. Johnson also had a desire to fight for his country in the Navy. When things were bad in the country he was looked upon for help the same as Roosevelt. Here is a description of his terms in the presidency.

Johnson was the thirty-sixth U.S. President. He was born August 7, 108, near Johnson City, Texas. Johnsons father was a struggling farmer trying to raise his two sons and three daughters. Johnson graduated from Southwest State Teachers College in San Marcos, Texas, with a Bachelor of Science degree.

In 11, politics beckoned. He went to Washington, D.C., as secretary to Texas congressman Richard Kleberg. Almost immediately Johnsons talent for attracting affection and respect became visible. He was elected Speaker of the Little Congress, an assembly of congressional secretaries on Capitol Hill.

On November 17, 14, he married Claudia Taylor of Karnak, Texas. At age 7, he was already exhibiting his characteristic traits of energy, intellect, and tenacity when he resigned as a congressional secretary in 15 to become the Texas director of the National Youth Administration. In 17, the congressman from Texass Tenth District died suddenly. When a special election was called to select a successor, Johnson hesitated only slightly. Johnson leaped into a race crowded with eight opponents. The only candidate to support President Franklin Roosevelts court-packing plan, he did so with such vigor that the eyes of the nation were drawn to the outcome, and none watched it with more intensity than Roosevelt himself. To the amazement of political veterans, the 8-year-old Johnson won the race.

President Roosevelt, in Texas on a fishing trip, was so elated that he invited Johnson to accompany him back to Washington, D.C. Thus, Johnson became his personal protg. Johnson was brought into the councils of ruling establishmentarians of the House of Representatives.

In 141, Johnson entered another special election, this time for a Senate seat made vacant by a death. Nearly every community watched the tall, smiling Johnson alight from his helicopter. In a bitter campaign Johnson lost by 1,11 votes to Governor W. Lee ODaniel.

That December Johnson became the first member of Congress to enter active military duty. He joined the Navy and in 14 received the Silver Star for gallantry in a bombing mission over New Guinea. When President Roosevelt ordered all congressmen back to the capital in 14, Johnson reentered the House.

In 148, Johnsons restless quest for higher office was finally successful. In a savagely fought senatorial campaign, he defeated a former governor of Texas by a celebrated margin of 87 votes. In January 151, just three years into his first term, Johnson was elevated to Democratic assistant minority leader. In 15, when the post of minority leader in the Senate opened up Democratic senators without hesitation chose Johnson to take charge. With the congressional elections of 154, the Democrats took command of both houses. And with this new alignment, Johnson again set a record as the youngest man ever to become majority leader.

Johnson became the complete Senate leader. Now one voice spoke for the Democrats, as Johnson became the second most powerful man in Washington, D.C. He handled the Senate with confidence and skill. The Republican opposition found it impossible to outflank this majority leader; legislation opposed by Johnson rarely found acceptance by the Senate.

Johnson led the first civil rights bill in 8 years through the Senate. He guided to final victory the first space legislation in the National Aeronautics and Space Act of 158. In 158, designated by President Dwight Eisenhower to represent the United States at the United Nations, he presented the resolution calling for the peaceful exploration of outer space. He exposed wastes in defense procurement during the Korean War and conducted defense hearings that were a model of accuracy and dispassionate scrutiny.

In 160, Johnson briefly opposed John F. Kennedy for the Democratic presidential nomination; then Kennedy electrified the country by choosing Johnson as his vice-presidential running mate. While some Kennedy supporters grumbled, experts later agreed that Johnsons relentless campaigning in Texas and throughout the South had provided Kennedy with his winning margin. As vice-president, Johnson had important assignments. One of his principal tasks was the burgeoning space program, which was overshadowed by Russian triumphs with Sputnik and subsequent innovations that put the United States in an inferior role. For civil rights, he was the chairman of the Equal Employment Opportunity forces.

On November , 16, President Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas. Aboard the plane Air Force One at Love Field in Dallas, Johnson took the presidential oath of office on November . Giving orders to take off seconds later, the new president flew back to Washington to take command of the government, while the nation grieved for its fallen leader.

Five days after taking office, President Johnson appeared before a joint session of the Congress. Speaking with firmness and controlled passion, he pledged, we shall continue. The new president--meeting round the clock with staff, Cabinet, and congressmen--unbuckled key legislation, so that within a few short months the tax cut and the civil rights bills were passed by Congress and signed by the President.

Six months after assuming the presidency, Johnson announced his concept of the Great Society. The areas he considered vital were health and education; the whole complex of the urban society, with its accompanying ills of ghettos, pollution, housing, and transportation; civil rights; and conservation.

Johnson took his innovative domestic programs to the nation in the election of 164. The American involvement in Vietnam, sanctioned by three presidents, became an issue. He won by a margin of almost 16 million votes, more than 61 percent of the total vote, the widest margin in totals and percentage of any presidential election in American history. Between 165 and 168 the Congress passed more than 07 landmark bills.

In education, Johnsons administration tripled expenditures. By the end of 168, 1.5 million students were receiving Federal aid to help them gain their college degrees; over 10 million people learned new skills through vocational education; and 1,000 school districts received special help under the Elementary and Secondary Education Act. More than 600,000 disabled citizens were trained through vocational rehabilitation programs. Head Start and other preschool programs brought specific assistance to more than two million children.

In the area of health, Johnsons administration increased Federal expenditures from $4 billion to $14 billion in four years. Medicare covered more than 0 million Americans, and more than seven million received its benefits. About 1 million children were vaccinated against four severe diseases, reducing by 50 percent the number of children who suffered from these diseases, and more than million children received health care under Medicaid in one year. Some 86 community mental health centers were built. More than 0,000 mothers and 680,000 infants received care through the Maternal and Child Health programs. Some 460,000 handicapped children were treated under the Crippled Childrens Program.

Fighting poverty, the Johnson administration lifted more than 6,000,000 Americans out of the poverty depths. Over 100,000 young men and women completed Job Corps training; . million needy Americans were helped under the Food Stamp Program; school children benefited from the School Milk and School Lunch programs.

In the area of human and civil rights, the Voting Rights Act was passed in 165, and within years nearly 1 million Negroes registered to vote in the South. More than 8 percent of all the nations hospitals agreed to provide services without discrimination. More than 8 percent of all Negro families by 168 earned about $7,000 a year, doubling the 160 figure. Some 5 percent more Negroes found professional, technical, and managerial jobs between 164 and 168. In housing, in four years the Johnson administration generated the construction of 5.5 million new homes. Direct Federal expenditures for housing and community development increased from $65 million to nearly $ billion. Two million families received Federal Housing Administration improvement loans. Federal assistance provided housing for 15,000 families earning less than $7,000 a year. Nearly $47 million was spent for water and sewage facilities in small towns. More than .5 million rural citizens benefited from economic opportunity loans, farm operation and emergency loans, and watershed and rural housing loans.

The Johnson administration presided over the longest upward curve of prosperity in the history of the nation. More than 85 months of unrivaled economic growth marked this as the strongest era of national prosperity. The average weekly wage of factory workers rose 18 percent in four years. Over nine million additional workers were brought under minimum-wage protection. Total employment, increased by 7.5 million workers, added up to 75 million; the unemployment rate dropped to its lowest point in more than a decade.

In foreign affairs the President made significant achievements. In the Western Hemisphere, at Punta del Este, Uruguay, the Latin American nations agreed to a common market for the continent. Normal relations with Panama were restored and a new canal treaty negotiated. In Cyprus, at the brink of war, the Presidents special emissaries knitted a settlement that staved off conflict. A rebellion in the Congo, which would have had ugly repercussions throughout the continent, was put down with American aid in the form of transport planes. In the Dominican Republic, an incipient Communist threat was challenged by an overwhelming show of American force, with Latin American allies.

An outer-space treaty was negotiated with the Soviet Union and a nuclear nonproliferation treaty was formulated and agreed to in Geneva. In June 167 the President met with Premier Alexei Kosygin of the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization was successfully realigned after France withdrew, and the vast Western European alliance was restructured and strengthened.

It was the troubled Southeast Asian problem in South Vietnam to which Johnson devoted long, tormented hours. When Johnson first became chief executive, 16,000 American troops were in Vietnam as advisers and combat instructors. In 165 the United States decided to increase its military support of South Vietnam and authorized commitment of more American troops. By 168 there was considerable disaffection over the Asian policy, and many critics in and out of the Congress determined to force the Johnson administration to shrink its commitment and withdraw U.S. troops.

Beginning in April 165 with the Presidents speech at Johns Hopkins University, in which he set forth the American policy of reconstruction of the area and the promulgation of the Asian Development Bank as an instrument of peace building, the Johnson administration attempted to negotiate with North Vietnam, whose troops were infiltrating into the South in increasing numbers. A 7-day bombing pause in December 165 raised hopes for negotiation, but lack of response from the North Vietnamese blotted this out, and the bombing resumed.

Assaulted by fierce and growing criticism, yet determined to fix some course of action that would diminish the war and commence serious peace talks, the President startled the nation and the world on March 1, 168, by renouncing his claim to re-nomination for the presidency. Johnson said that he believed that the necessity for finding a structure of peaceful negotiation was so important that even his own political fortunes must not be allowed to stand in its way. Therefore, he stated, he would not seek re-nomination, so he could spend the rest of his days in the presidency searching for negotiation without any political taint marring a possible response from the enemy.

On May 11, 168, it was announced that peace talks would indeed begin in Paris, and in November 168 the President declared that all bombing of North Vietnam would cease. Johnson retired to his ranch near San Antonio, Texas, and began to nurse a serious heart ailment.

On the afternoon of January , 17, Johnson suffered a heart attack while lying down to take a nap. He was flown to a hospital by his Secret Service agents, but was pronounced dead on arrival at 4 p.m. His body lay in state first at the Johnson Library in Austin, Texas, then, as is usual for American presidents, in the rotunda of the Capitol in Washington, D.C. until his burial on his beloved ranch.

Johnson and Roosevelt have so much more to compare than to contrast. They were both great men who wanted to fight for their country and improve the quality of life for the citizens of America. They both lead their country through war whether the end result was victorious or not. They also both lead the country through crucial times in Americas history, also. Roosevelt with the depression and World War II, and Johnson helped his country through the Vietnam War and made a huge milestone in history by passing the Civil Rights Act. There is little doubt that Johnson and Roosevelts impress on the quality of life in the United States will be long remembered.

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