Enhancing corporate accountability

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What is meant by corporate "accountability"? it has been proposed that, to enhance corporate accountability and profitability, corporate stakeholders should play an active role is the governance of the corporations in which they have an interest. This would also safeguard the interests of the stakeholders. What are the arguments for and against this view? Discuss some possible ways whereby corporate stakeholders may play a more effective role in corporate governance. Identify some of the issues that might arise from your proposals.

The recent corporate collapses of such companies as Enron, WorldCom, HIH Insurance and OneTel have made corporate governance an increasingly important issue. Corporate governance is designed to monitor and control the management of corporations to ensure there is no misconduct and that shareholder value is enhanced . Good corporate governance is about responsible investors and boards cultivating long term sustainable economic growth . It has several characteristics, which includes transparency, responsibility, fairness and accountability. It is important to note that corporate governance concerns the whole community, not only shareholders, managers and regulators. The corporate governance mechanisms that currently exist have proved to be inadequate. The government and public interest groups are failing to keep corporations in check. Consequently, I uphold that there should be greater stakeholder involvement in corporate decision making. This will enable a more democratic system to be in place.

Corporate accountability is ensuring that management is effectively overseen, and where necessary, replaced, by appointing an independent and competent governing body . It concerns the responsibility of management of a corporation to affirm that inappropriate acts engaged in within a corporation either for individual benefit or for the benefit of the corporation as a whole do not occur . Corporate accountability should be of utmost importance. The reason being that society places considerable trust in company directors who are well respected. They are perceived to be people of integrity, knowledgeable and honest. However, when there is misconduct and mismanagement amongst corporations, the public loses this confidence as they feel betrayed and violated, and as a result, the communities morale is shaken . When the misconduct and mismanagement leads to a corporate collapse, it has further implications on society. Corporations provide social and economic development in society as it creates jobs and generate revenue for goods and services they are engines of economic growth . However, corporations need investment but people will only be willing to invest their money if they are confident that it will be used appropriately and earn dividends . Therefore, corporate collapses result in a decline in investments. This has adverse effects as production suffers, there is minimal cash flow, living standards would fall, an increase in unemployment, hence, the community at large suffers .

Accordingly something must be done to combat this issue. Building accountability into the governance of corporations themselves may be the most urgent reform society should make. Although it is true that the government and public interest groups play an important role in keeping corporations in check, but it is no secret that corporations control much of the dialogue in both government and the nonprofit sector . Corporations have become the dominant mediating structures between the individual and society . Unfortunately, unless corporate governance itself becomes more democratic, "we may be fighting a losing battle" .

Effective corporate governance requires several principle characteristics. The first is transparency. In order for a corporate governance system to be transparent, there must be full disclosure of financial and non-financial information . In other words, everything must be out in the open. "There is no greater threat to investments and retirement savings than a lack of transparency ". Therefore, in order for transparency to occur, in the most basic form, executive salaries should be open, and it may be necessary for corporate governors to declare their assets before taking office and on leaving office . Responsibility is another characteristic and it involves ensuring that corporations fulfill their proper role in societies corporate governance systems. The other characeteristics of effective corporate governance are accountability and fairness. Corporate governance systems vary in how they achieve these goals, but by focusing on one group in this case stakeholders we can further develop the notion of how a stakeholder group can strengthen the corporate governance system .

It has been proposed that to enhance corporate accountability, corporate stakeholders should play an active role in the governance of corporations in which they have an interest. A corporate stakeholder is any person or entity that has a vested interest in the efficient, accountable and profitable running of a corporation . They are many different forms of stakeholders. Shareholders provide funds for the business. Company creditors are interested in the corporate management because if the corporation becomes insolvent, the creditor runs the risk of not being repaid the money owing to them . In the situation of a corporate collapse, employees will lose their job as well as their entitlements such as superannuation . The government is a stakeholder and is concerned about corporate management because it needs profitable companies to create jobs and generate revenue in the economy. As a result, it acts to prevent company failures and has to restore their impact on society . Other stakeholders include consumers, the workforce, other businesses and the community in general, all of which can play a part.

If the numerous recent corporate collapses are considered, the current system of corporate management has proved to be inadequate. Something must be done to promote more efficient and transparent corporate governance. One way in which this can occur is by promoting greater stakeholder activism in corporate management. In fact, stakeholders share the blame for the corporate collapses of Enron, HIH Insurance, One Tel and WorldCom too. In fact, they are one of the fundamental problems of corporate governance. My reason being, that stakeholders, shareholders in particular, have taken a "free ride" on the monitoring efforts of others. The risk of this is that if everybody takes that attitude, nobody does the work of holding management or the board accountable .

Governments wont and have been already unable to manage the management of corporations, mainly because they are often too closely associated with the businesses that generate government revenue, therefore, stakeholders would be more appropriate . However, stakeholders must become more assertive in their approach . After all, it does protect their investments .

In order to achieve this, stakeholders should be involved in all the major corporate governance and accountability structures such as boards of directors, and audit committees. This will entail having representatives of a cross-section of stakeholders as well as including professional accountants and auditors on these various mechanisms . The stakeholders of most importance that should participate in such systems should be shareholders, employees and consumers. With regard to shareholders, there are well motivated to ensure their investment if handled properly. Consumers are motivated also because in the case of a corporate collapse, the consumer has the possibility of losing money already paid for goods and services . Employees are ideal for such a system because they have additional knowledge of the corporation. Their motivation would be their reliance on the corporation for their own prosperity through employment. As the Enron collapse has proven, "… regular employees not executives, not directors, not shareholders have the most to lose when a company fails. With their jobs, pensions, and stock option wealth on the line, it follows that they have a greater incentive than anyone to act as company watchdogs" . Hence, stable policies and sharp decisions emerge from a broader consensus . There are several arguments that are for and against the involvement of stakeholders in corporate governance mechanisms, some of which are discussed below.

The primary argument for their involvement is that "two heads are better than one" . Stakeholders represent a large spectrum of the community. The larger the involvement of the community on corporate management would result in better governance. Stakeholder involvement would enable them to be better informed of the corporations operations and they will be prioritised and motivated by it. Employees would be able to bring experience and knowledge and consumer representatives can bring insights into the impact a decision will have on the consumer community .

In addition, if stakeholders are able to participate in a companys decision making process, it will enable that particular company to be transparent and accountable principles of good corporate governance . The reason why there has been so much corruption in the corporate sector is because of a lack of transparency. Fraud thrives on secrecy; stakeholder involvement would therefore be able to minimise this crime from occurring .

Finally, as there have been several corporate collapses due to misconduct and mismanagement, investment in the corporate sector has declined due to the loss of faith. However, active stakeholder involvement should restore peoples confidence in this sector because such conduct would be minimised . As society knows that a corporation belongs to all those with vested interests in it, they also know that stakeholders would not do anything to jeopordise the long term health and prosperity of the company.

The main argument opposed to stakeholder involvement is that "too many cooks spoil the broth" . It might create a more complex bureaucracy and slow down the decision making process. It is also believed that stakeholder representatives might have agendas that compete and conflict with one another. However, having this variety of interests will enable company decisions and policies to be balanced in a way that does not favor one segment at the expense of others . Therefore, it really is an advantage.

A disadvantage of stakeholder involvement is that it will increase costs for the corporation. This is due to the fact that stakeholders should receive some form of remuneration for their efforts. However, if you consider the costs involved with a corporate collapse or fraudulent acts, the costs of paid representatives is minor.

The stakeholder involvement concept directly challenges existing structures and mechanisms. As a result of this, several issues arise. The amount and which type of stakeholders to be part of the regime is an issue. Relevant stakeholders vary according to the firms circumstances. If any group, which is affected by the operations of a company, were considered to have an equal stake in it, then the idea of this concept would be unworkable. A procedure needs to be in place which ascribes weight to different stakeholder interests and who will define specific rights of such things as ownership, a vote on the Board, veto powers, a right to consultation and compensation. Should every stakeholder have the same rights? I believe that there should be representatives of the various stakeholders discussed above consumers, shareholders and employees and they should come together as a board and given equal rights. Professional accountants and auditors should also be party to it and depending on the individual situation, certain creditors should be included. The stakeholders chosen and their numbers should be depended upon the individual corporations circumstances.

My own belief is that all stakeholders, shareholders in particular, ought to have a duty to take a more active interest in the financial status of a company. They have a responsibility to ensure the corporation is running efficiently, and that in the event of a corporate collapse, I believe the onus of blame should not be placed solely on corporate management. Stakeholders should be granted the ability to demand information on all aspects of the company when needed, which will better enable the stakeholders to act as a "watchdog" in the corporation.

I advocate greater stakeholder involvement in governance and I believe they should be involved in all the major corporate governance and accountability structures such as boards of directors, and audit committees. All corporations should have a "stakeholder committee" whose main function is to overlook managements operations. I believe that the current system is not effective and that reform is of utmost importance. We cant just sit back and let all this corruption take place.

It is argued that enforcing good corporate management is a difficult task, and that there will always be corrupt management amongst corporations. I agree with this, however, I believe that if we do not attempt to enforce it and hold management accountable, or just let things be as they are, then the situation will aggravate. For example, littering is against the law in Australia. However, the majority of the community commits this offense even if they do not admit to it. The reason why people are not deterred from committing this offense is because they are well aware that they are capable of getting away with it it is because the laws against littering are not enforced. There are no policemen roaming the streets ensuring that the citizens of Australia are correctly disposing of their rubbish. If there were such policemen, then I am sure that everyone would abide by the littering laws. The point I am getting at is that the mismanagement in corporations exists because, in the context of the litter example, there are no policemen roaming the streets. I believe the stakeholders should be the policemen and overlook their corporations operations. Stakeholders would be the best watchdogs because they have a vested interest in the corporation and therefore would not do anything to jeopordise the long term health and prosperity of the company.

In conclusion, good corporate governance is central in ensuring that there is efficient use of corporate capital and that company boards are accountable to their shareholders, management, employees and other stakeholders. To ensure that there is a good corporate governance system, there should be stakeholder involvement. This will enable the misconduct that takes place to be minimised. Stakeholders have a greater incentive to act as watchdogs compared to anyone, as they would search for methods of ensuring the long term health and prosperity of the corporation so their investment would be well looked after. In fact, the advantages of implementing a stakeholder system outweigh the disadvantages. Genuinely engaging stakeholders can lead to improvements in societal and financial goals. As there would be a cross-section of people involved, it would lead to stable policies and sharp decisions. In addition, stakeholder involvement is not just a trendy term it is about companies factoring in the pensioners who lost their superannuation, the workers who lost their jobs, the community organisations that received donations, in their corporate planning from the beginning. In other words, it is a pro-active approach to corporate governance and should deter management from engaging in any corrupt practices.

Bibliography

Acquaah-Gaisie, G. "Enhancing corporate accountability in Australia", Australian Journal of Corporate Law, (11), 000.

Acquaah-Gaisie, G. "Minimising corporate collapses through stakeholder activism", Corporate Misconduct eZine, 1(1), March 00.

Lipton, P. & Herzberg, A. Understanding Company Law, (11th edn), Thomson, Australia, 00.

Tilly, K., & Tomlinson, D., "HIH Collapse Roils Regulators", Business Insurance, 5(1), 00.

Web addresses

McRichie, J., "Strategic choices in shareholder advocacy, A corporate governance perspective", http//www.corpgov.net, [Accessed 5th September 00]

Powell, D., "Corporate governance in the new millennium/The role of senior executives in defining corporate character", http//www.firstcitizenstt.com, [Accessed nd September 00]

Thomas, C., "Good Corporate Governance quality people or rigorous guidelines?", http//www.ceoforum.com.au, [Accessed nd September 00]

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MICRO

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Introduction

Microorganisms are extremely small and can be isolated by different methods. The purpose of this lab was to take an unknown mixture containing two different types of bacteria and isolate a pure culture of each type and be able to identify what each bacteria was. This was done using the procedures we have learned thus far in lab.

More than one type of organism may show up in the selective environments that were used, that is why we kept isolating the bacteria from day to day. A pure culture is not present until there is one type of colony. The unknown bacteria was identified by streaking them on different petri plates, such as; DNAse, Pseudomonas Afar P (PAP), Pseudomonas Agar F (PAF), Nutrient Agar (NA), Blood Agar Plate (BAP), Colistin-Nalidxic Agar (CNA), MacConkey Agar (MAC) and Trypticase Soy Broth (TSB) plates. TTC deeps, TSI slants, tryptone broth, bile esculin broth, gram stains, catalase and oxidase tests were also used.

The first day the unknown suspension was streaked onto a CNA plate, MAC plate and a TSB plate. These plates were used because the CNA plate inhibits the growth of most gram negative rods. Streptococcus and Staphylococcus grow well on this type of a plate. Also some strains of Bacillus are able to grow. The MAC plate enables most gram negative bacteria to grow. Yeasts and gram positive bacteria are inhibited. When lactose utilizers are present the colonies appear pink to red, when absent they appear colorless to yellow. The TSB plate is an all purpose medium for isolating bacteria, to make sure there is actually bacteria present.

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During the second day gram stains were taken from the plates used in day one. This enabled me to determine what types of media and further tests to used to identify the bacteria based on the gram reaction. For gram negative bacteria a TSI slant, Tryptone broth, PAP plate, PAF plate, TTC deep and a DNAse plate were used. Colonies were taken from the MAC plates and streaked onto the plates, stabbed into the slants and mixed in with broths. The TSI slant was used to test for gas production and sugar utilization. The Tryptone broth detects the production of indole from tryptophan. Kovacs reagent is added and it turns red if indole is produced. This is useful for the identification of E. coli. PAP plate and PAF plates are non-selective medias used for detection and differentiation between Pseudomonas. The pigments diffuse from the colonies of Pseudomonas into the agar. A PAP plate enhances the elaboration of pyocyanin and inhibits the formation of pyoverdin. Pyocyanin on Pseudomonas is a blue non-fluorescent color. On the PAF plate enhances the elaboration of pyoverdin and inhibits the formation of pyocyanin. Pyoverdin on Pseudomonas is a yellow-green pigment. The TTC deep tests for motility of the bacteria. A DNAse plate tests for production of DNAse, it differentiates between Serratia, E. coli, Enterobacter, S. aureus and S. epidermis.

For gram positive bacteria a DNAse plate, TTC deep, Mannitol salt plate, Bile esculin broth, NA plate and BAP plates were used. Colonies were taken from the TSB plates (because I had no growth on the CNA plate) and streaked onto the plates, stabbed into the deeps and mixed in with the broth. The Mannitol salt plates has a high salt concentration and inhibits most organisms except Staphylococci. It differentiates between S. epidermis and S. aureus. S. aureus have opaque colonies surrounded by a yellow zone and most S. epidermis fail to ferment mannitol, so the colonies appear red-purple. In the Bile esculin broth the bacteria grows on 4% bile and hydrolyzes esculin to esculetin and glucose, the media turns black. It is selective and differential for growth of Enterococcus. The Nutrient agar plate is an all purpose medium that allows the growth of Bacillus spores. A BAP plate is used to detect for hemolysis especially in Staphylococcus. Enterococcus wont lyse sheep red blood cells. a᠃hemolysis is the partial lysis of red blood cells around the colony, resulting in a greenish discoloration around the colony. b hemolysis is the complete lysis of red blood cells around the colony, resulting in a transparent area around the colony. Non-hemolytic results in no lysis of red blood cells around the colony and no change in the agar.

Catalase and Oxidase tests were used for both gram negative and gram positive stains. In the Catalase test, the enzyme catalase decomposes hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen, which results in vigorous bubbling if the test is positive. This is used to separate Staphylococci, which are positive from Streptococci that are negative. The oxidase test tests for cytochrome oxidase which is found in bacteria using oxidative phosphorylation. A positive test of a colony deposit turns purple within 10 seconds. This separates Pseudomonas and Azotobacter, which are positive from E. Coli, Staphylococcus, Streptococcus and Serratia marcescens, which are negative.

Results

After a lot of observations of the plates, slants and deeps, gram stains, catalase and oxidase tests I was able to determine which unknowns I had. Please see attached tables of unknowns. From the tables, I have concluded that my unknowns are Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis.

Discussion

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'Madame Bovary, written by Gustave Flaubert (1857), and 'Crime and Punishment, written by Fyodor Dostoevsky (1866)'The women in these novels only come to life through loving the men. Discuss, making reference to your course texts.

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Both 'Madame Bovary, written by Gustave Flaubert (1857), and 'Crime and Punishment, written by Fyodor Dostoevsky (1866) are products of western culture of the nineteenth century. Both authors are men writing from within a fiercely patriarchal society. Patriarchy is a social system of rule that ensures the dominance of men and the subsequent subservience of women. In this society relationships between men and women are built on inequality. However, patriarchy goes much further than this; not only does it involve the subordination of women, but it is also a social process or conditioning whereby women come to accept in their own thinking the idea of male superiority. From this position it is easy to see how 'women in these novels only come to life through loving the men. Both these authors appear to consider this concept in different ways. Flaubert seems to accept that women aspire to be their idealised images penned by men and creates an environment of reality whereby the absurdity of the 'romantic novel can be exposed. Dostoevsky shows how such a system can be equally as damaging for men.

In 'Madame Bovary1 Flaubert creates a bored, middle class, wife of a doctor, living in desperately dull circumstances in a provincial French setting. Emma Bovary is the daughter of a spendthrift farmer, Monsieur Rouault, who, though he seems to show much affection for his daughter, marries her off to Charles Bovary, a man he thinks 'rather puny as 'she is of little use to him in the house and Charles would 'strike no hard bargain in the matter of a dowry.(Page 1). Madame Bovary 'had received a good education, had learnt dancing, geography, drawing, embroidery and to play the piano (Page 15) and it is because of this education that she discovers the romantic novel. Madame Bovary is an avid reader and immerses herself in literature rather than face her isolated life, at first on the farm with her father and later, with Charles who 'could not rouse emotion in her, nor laughter, nor excuse for dreams.(Page 6) The words she uses to voice her thoughts reflect the romantic ideas she has internalised 'Love, she believed, should come with the suddenness of thunder and lightening, should burst like a storm upon her life, sweeping her away, scattering her resolutions like leaves before a wind, driving her whole heart to the abyss.(Page 8).

In the pages of the novels she reads Emma finds a world more adventurous and fanciful than her reality. She, like the characters in the stories, searches for truth beyond that which we encounter in everyday experience, she believes the myth created by the author and, in a sense, her story becomes literary criticism as the romantic believer is exposed to lifes harsh realities. Realism versus romance. Through Emma, Flaubert comments on the power of literature to shape and define our world, Emma is the product of a masculine imagination whose very existence is questioning the validity of female stereotypes established by largely male authors.

The realism in the novel is strikingly accurate. Flauberts style and aesthetic transformation of the ordinary and, sometimes, vulgar reality of life in Provincial France is the perfect backdrop for this tale. Emmas sense of style and its importance, along with her aristocratic airs and graces seem in sharp contrast with her surroundings of rural simplicity 'Her own daily scene a tedious countryside, a half-witted, middle-class society, an unceasing round of mediocrity- she saw as an exception to some more glorious rule, as something in which, by mere ill-chance, she had been caught and held (Page 5) Emma clearly believes that she is destined for great things. Flaubert uses her ambition to comic effect and the reader can visualise her humiliation as she leaves the ball at La Vanbyessard, having at last been exposed to courtly life, and climbs into Charles rickety old phaeton '… the little cob ambled along between the shafts which were too big for him…The corded box bumped rhythmically against the body of the vehicle.(Page 4) Help with essay on 'Madame Bovary, written by Gustave Flaubert (1857), and 'Crime and Punishment, written by Fyodor Dostoevsky (1866)'The women in these novels only come to life through loving the men. Discuss, making reference to your course texts.

The original statement was that 'women only come to life through loving the men and this does not altogether correspond to the impression made by Emma in this novel and would entirely depend on how we define the word 'love. If 'love is defined as 'an intense emotion of affection, warmth, fondness and regard towards a person or thing then she shows little sign of such affection, not even to her own flesh and blood. However, if an alternative meaning is used (and there are eighteen definitions to choose from) that of 'a deep feeling of sexual attraction and desire then it is true to say that Emma loves both Rodolphe and Lon. Though Emma appears to be in love with the romantic experience, the passion and the flattery of love itself, rather than any man.

Emma blames her adultery on her hopes being dashed in reality 'In the days before her marriage she had fancied she was in love. But the happiness love should have brought her did not come. Her husband Charles disappoints her from the start. Here is a rather passionless man, not much of a conversationalist who '…taught her nothing, knew nothing, desired nothing. (Page 6) Flaubert goes to great lengths to add authenticity by adapting his narrative perspective when introducing Charles in the first few pages of the novel. Whereas in the rest of the novel the narrative is omniscient third person, in these few pages 'we hear the narrative voice, the first person. Whether it is Flauberts voice telling the reader about an old school chum or a nameless witness after the fact, it seems to work and Charles becomes real whereas he could easily have appeared to be a caricature. In order for Flaubert to make his point it is important for the reader to believe in Charles character and his content attitude to life and to establish very early that he is no reader, though he eventually becomes a doctor, he is firmly established as a less complex character than his wife who clearly does not speak her language of love. A language Flaubert seems anxious to expose as fraudulent and has no place within the realms of reality.

Emma is clearly wooed by the use of romantic language and her husbands incapability to communicate in such a way is established early in their relationship. Charles is clearly incapable of such articulacy and this is evident whilst they experience their brief courtship 'At moments she was gay and looked at him with innocent wide eyes, then suddenly her lids would droop, and her eyes founder in a tide of boredom, while her thoughts took aimless flight. (Page 0) Emma does, however come to life when Rodolphe uses the right words and phrases, himself a serious seducer of educated women. His experience drives him to use the language women have come to accept from a system they have internalised, in order to seduce her and little else.

It is interesting that, in Madame Bovary and Crime and Punishment women who are not physically attractive to men are also the focus of anxiety and hostility. Perhaps their uncharming presence hints that women may not be divinely designed just to meet the needs of men. Graceless women who also refuse to be submissive appear to be the most fearful. Flaubert uses the death of the first Madame Bovary to satirise the tendency for literature to persecute these monstrous shrews, often subjecting them to torture or burning them as witches; it is somewhat unusual for them to live happily ever after with 'Prince Charming. Whilst killing off this 'widow-wife in a single paragraph, no warning or build up, he draws attention to this 'She is dead! What a surprise! (Page 17) It is as though he is mocking the demands of the masculine, which makes her death both necessary and inevitable. Dostoevsky makes the bloody murder of another ugly old women the central issue of the entire novel, she also has the disadvantage of being a money lender (never the most popular people in any society) and is described as being 'as rich as a Jew (Page 61) The reader, along with Raskolnykov, is left to puzzle over the true motive for such a crime.

Dostoevskys St Petersburg is a far cry from Flauberts Provincial France and though they share a similar patriarchal structure within their society it is interesting to see how extreme deprivation and poverty can affect the interpretation of such rules. In the early chapters of the novel, Roskolnykov has a series of seemingly unconnected experiences featuring womens vulnerability within a patriarchal structure where men seem depressed and powerless. Roskolnykov lives in a room 'more like a cupboard (Page 1) in St Petersburg which, when described is painted as a 'mournfully repellent picture (Page 0). After 'rehearsing his project (Page ) and sizing up the practical logistics of such a crime, he leaves Alna Ivanovnas house 'in great confusion wondering at 'what vileness my heart seems capable of (Page 7)

But this city seems to breed vileness and this is demonstrated in the story of Marmeladov, a drunk, who in typical drunken fashion appears to blame everyone for his supreme misfortune, including himself 'an abject and useless creature (Page 11), 'such is my character, I am a beast of nature. (Page 1) He is incapable of supporting his family and this is the cruelty of the system whereby women are possessions of men, he has no choice. Raskolnykov hears how this mans wife was beaten by a money lender whilst Marmeladov 'lay fuddled with drink (Page 11) He tells how his daughter is driven to prostitution in order to support her consumptive stepmother and her children. His masculine pride insinuates that it was his wife, Katerinas idea; when Sonya questions her as to whether this is something she should do, Katerina mocks the harsh realities of life ' "Why not?" answered Katerina Ivanovna mockingly; "What is there to preserve so carefully? What a treasure!"(Page 16) Katerina has known better times, a better class, she knows the rules and realises that the daughter of a drunken fool is never going to have any material value within such an environment, and beseeches Raskolnykov not to 'blame her! It was said in distraction, when she was ill, and wrought up, and the children were crying with hunger… (Page 16), hardly the circumstances in which rational decisions are made.

After reading a letter from his mother telling him of the problems of sexual harassment that have driven his sister, Dunya to leave her position as governess and her subsequent decision to accept an offer of marriage on largely financial grounds, Raskolnykov becomes even more uneasy with his situation. Dunya is an intelligent, educated young lady in a social system that has no middle class, she is a good and respectable Christian but she realises unlike her brother, who seems permanently in a dream of arguments and counter-arguments that never really go anywhere, that she must accept her duty. Raskolnykov is appalled that Dunya is prepared to marry a man who merely 'seems good and kind (Page 8) in order to ensure financial security for herself and hopefully her family. This distresses Raskolnykov, he realises that both women have made a rational decision to sell themselves, yet Dunyas crime is far worse because it hides behind a façade of respectability, Dunya can 'reckon on comforts into the bargain, and with the other it is a question simply of dying hunger.(Page 4) As he judges his sister he seems to forget his previous thinking on the issue of Sonya 'What a little gold mine theyve managed to get hold of there! and profit from! Oh yes, they draw their profits from it! And theyve got used to it. Men are scoundrels; they can get used to anything! (Page 5) When it is not his sister selling her body to maintain her family Raskolnykov can understand and almost approve but now, because of his inability to maintain her, and her love for him, he realises that Dunya is prepared to take such a step. The burden of responsibility lies on his shoulders, as man of the family he must provide for his women or allow them to fall.

What is truly remarkable about this man is that in his desperate need to solve the problems that were 'not new in fact this is' an old and painful story, (page 4) Raskolnykov realises that the murder he planned, the 'vile solution is his only option. Not realising that in order to prevent one woman from selling herself in marriage he is prepared to take the life of another. Dunyas eventual response to Raskolnykovs scathing criticism of her decision to marry hauntingly echoes this sentiment, as the deed is by this time already done If I destroy anything it will be myself and nobody else… I have not killed anybody! (Page ).

In Madam Bovary Emmas experience of the church allows an appreciation of its aesthetic appeal and little else 'loved the church for its flowers, (Page 5) and the women in Crime and Punishment refer to God constantly. It seems that in the harsh reality of 1th century Russia, (somewhat overstated by Dostoevsky) it is faith in the Russian Orthodox Church that gives them strength. When Raskolnykov asks Sonya, mockingly, to read to him from her New Testament, she hesitates and he begins to understand how she keeps her sanity in such a cruel world Raskolnykov half understood why Sonya could not make herself read to him… He knew very well how difficult it was for her to expose and betray all that was her own. He understood that those feelings in fact constituted the real long-standing secret, cherished perhaps since her girlhood, in the midst of her family, with an unhappy father, a stepmother crazed by grief, and hungry children, in an atmosphere of hideous shrieks and reproaches. (Page 1) Both in Madam Bovary and Crime and Punishment it would seem that there is evidence that, in order to cope with or even escape an unequal and unfair system, women put their faith in an imagined alternative. Powerless to change their circumstances they seek paradise in their imaginations and construct an ideal that men could never match. It is the love of their hopes and dreams that allow these women to come to life hopes and dreams that are, for the most part, designed by men.

Bibliography

Dostoevsky, Fyodor Crime and Punishment Translated by Jessie

Coulson, Oxford University Press, Oxford 15

Flaubert, Gustave Madame Bovary Translated by Gerard Hopkins

Oxford University Press 181

Hingley, Ronald Russian Writers and Society 185 104 Mcgraw Hill, USA 167

Steegmuller, Francis (Ed) The Letters of Gustave Flaubert 180-1857 Harvard, USA 180

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