The jungle

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The Jungle

Chapters 1-

In these first few chapters, I was surprised at a couple of things. One of these things was about how little focus was on Ona and Jurgis at their own wedding reception. They were only talked about very briefly and not again until the next chapters. I would think if you are going to talk about a wedding, you would probably talk about the people getting married;, not the violinist in the wedding band, like Sinclair talked about Tamoszius. What also surprised me was how awful Sinclair made Chicago look to these poor immigrants moving to America. You always hear how great America was and how it was a "land of opportunity" for all these immigrants years ago. Sinclair described in a flashback how Ona and Jurgis and some family members came to America from Lithuania and found it was quite depressing and dirty. The landscape was rundown and did not look too promising, but these people were still optimistic and grateful for everything they had. Even after Jurgis sees the hogs and cattle being slaughtered in the dirty factories, he is just grateful that these places employ so many people and hopes to be able to get a job there. Also their living conditions were quite bad. They lived in a four room apartment with about fifteen people. I figured when they saw how awful it was there, they would give up all hope and maybe even want to move to another country.

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These chapters are beginning to describe how difficult life was for the poor people, especially immigrants in the early twentieth century in America. It shows the troubles in things from trying to become situated in a new place and lifestyle to even just trying to get married with what little money and possessions you have. They also describe how even though these people were in a different country, they still tried to keep traditions of the old country, such as the acziavimos at the wedding reception. It was difficult to keep these traditions because the young people wanted to change to their new atmosphere and new countrys customs.

In chapters 4-, we learn how Jurgis surprisingly enjoys his work and is even shocked to see that his fellow workers do not feel the same as he does. Even though he realizes how gross his task of killing the animals is, he still loves the fact he is getting paid to do it. It is amazing that money means so much to Jurgis that he does not even want to join the union because he had to pay to get in. I did not think he would ever change his mind because he was so head-strong, especially when it came to money, but he did when Marija] lost he job and he realizes he is not protected either. Because he likes his money so much, I was surprised that he did not want Antanas to get a fob just because he would have to pay a certain amount of his pay. I figured he would want money anyway he could get it. Something else about these chapters is that they seem to be a little more boring to read, not the material in them but just how they are brought across. Instead of being told directly what the characters did, Sinclair chose to tell what they had done, even important things, like how Tamoszius and Marija get engaged. This especially should have been told in more detail because it is so interesting. I never even expected her to get married because she is so headstrong and set in her ways so it seemed strange that she would marry this little man who seemed to only love music. Another thing in these chapters was ;the death of Jurgis father, Dede Antanas. Until the day he died, he was still worried about working to "earn his keep" in the family. I am surprised that even when confronted with death, money was still on everyones mind. Jurgis does not even have time to mourn his fathers death because he was worried about paying for the hearse, because they could not even afford a real funeral. The reason he died was because of the poor conditions where he worked.

I found this part of the story to be a little bit humorous, even though I am sure this is not the effect Sinclair was trying to portray. The way Sinclair describes how you can tell where someone works in the factory by which disease or injuries they have, from rheumatism, to cut off of lost fingers from acid and knives. Another funny thing was the way Jurgis describes the government after being told about and influenced by those who pay him to vote a certain was. He almost compares the government to his meat packing factory with all of its corruption and describes it in this way "The officials who ruled it, and got all the graft, had to be elected first; and so there were two rival sets of grafters, known as political parties, and the one got the office, which bought the most votes."(11) This is funny in that it shows how corrupt even the government was at that time.

These chapters are now getting into more details about how dirty and depressing the meat packing industry was. Every part of it, even Antanas mopping the chemicals on the floor, was sad. Sinclair is now showing his obvious theme of how awful this industry is by telling the sad story of Jurgis and his family.

Chapters 10-15 were quite troubling to me. It seems as if everything that could go wrong did. When Ona has her baby, she can not afford to stay away from work so she has to go back to work a week after the birth of Antanas, which leaves her with various illnesses she will never get over. Also, Jurgis is not making as much money as before because there are so many new workers in his factory. All the owners think about is making more money so they do not care about cutting the pay of their workers. The next thing is that Jurgis hurts his ankle, which puts him out of work for a few months. This was troubling because it seemed the family was finally, coming through but now without Jurgis, the others would have to work extra hard. Something surprising, though, is the way Jurgis acted after he got hurt. When Stanislovas, Onas young step-brother, got his fingers frozen permanently hurting them, Jurgis got mad and beat him every morning because he did not want to go to work. I never thought Jurgis would hurt anyone. He seemed too nice, especially around Ona and her family, to actually beat someone. When Jurgis gets better, he goes out looking for a job. His job at Browns is no longer his because the factory refuses liability. This shows how much things have changed since the early 100s. Now, if you get hurt on the job, that have to take you back or pay you something or you can sue them. Back then, they did not treat workers as humans. All they were considered were something that helped to bring in money to the company. He finally got a job at the fertilizer plant, the lowest job possible. He was sick from the gross conditions and made all those he lived with sick, too. I think it was sick that he had to put himself and his family through this just to get paid as little as he did. If we had to do this today to not even get all of the essentials of life, I think I would kill myself. Something else that made me sick was the way Sinclair described Onas stepmother, Elzbietas job with the sausage machine. It was so disgusting how he described the different things in sausage. I doubt I will ever eat it again. Next in these chapters, I was disappointed that Jurgis took up drinking. I thought he would be stronger than that because he had Ona. She, however, put him "over the edge" when he finally found out about her and her boss Conner. Jurgis was basically beating information out of her about him, which again surprised me. I was not surprised, however, when he want to beat up Conner. He had always wanted to protect her and when he found out Conner had hurt her and threatened her with her and her familys jobs, he obviously, would try to protect her from being hurt again.

These chapters again are showing the depressing life of these poor people who are forced to work in these disgusting packing houses. To have to live this type of life seems almost unbearable. Their jobs influence everything in their lives, almost making them a living hell. Sinclair is showing that their lives are this hard and depressing not because they are not hard workers, but because there is almost no way possible to succeed in their time and place. It would be a miracle even to be able to work at a job one even minutely likes or even get paid a half-way descent amount . Their life is just horrible in every way possible.

Chapters 16-1

In these chapters, what interested me most was Jurgis seemed to think the same way I do. His views of how society treats criminals is similar to mine. When he finds that in jail, he is fed and sheltered, he is almost angry at society because it is helping these criminals when people like him cant even afford these luxuries. Also, I was surprised at how the judge sentenced him. He barely listened to his side of the story, and when he listened to Conner, who is part of the "system", he granted him everything he wanted. Something else was how easily Jurgis took in all the information that Duane, a fellow prisoner, was telling him about how corrupt society actually was. He absorbed so easily the ideas of all the illegal actions that could be taken to defeat society. Jurgis seems to put these thoughts on hold, however, when he gets out of jail and discovers his fears have come true. He lost his house and when he find hi family, Ona is dying while giving birth to their second child. Jurgis runs out to get a midwife he cannot afford, which I think shows how downhill their lives have gone in just a few years. They used to be able to afford a doctor, now they cannot afford a midwife. Hi wifes eventual death is also symbolic. It seemed as if everything Jurgis dreamed of about his American experience had been destroyed, first his house, then his love. Now that Ona is gone, he goes to get drunk to escape his problems, as many other men of that time did. When he sobers up, he goes home and promises to look for a job. He finds one after a while and then an even better one is offered to him by a sympathetic woman who has met up with Jurgis son, to work in the steel mill. He starts looking forward to and planning his future when one day he gets home and finds out his son has died in a puddle. This obviously was a shock, but did not make me feel all that bad for Jurgis or his son. Maybe that is because I never really felt connected to either character.

In these chapters I seemed to relate to Jurgis the best because his views on society really "touched home." He showed society as a corrupt part of life that never looked out for the good of all of the people, only those that "ran" the people. His misfortunes also showed how in that kind of society, if you start out low, it is almost impossible to succeed enough to rise above that level. This was shown through things from Jurgis imprisonment, to Onas death, and to his own sons death.

Chapters -6

These chapters seemed to be a little more uplifting than the rest. Even though his family was gone, Jurgis seemed to find happiness, or at least peace, in the countryside where he ran away to. After hopping on the train, he was finally free to do what he pleased and move without being restricted to a crowded city. He also could use his money for what he wanted, which was usually liquor and women. So it surprised me when he got so upset when he saw a mother and child because it seemed that he had got past what had happened in his past. He ended up moving back to the city where he got a job digging tunnels. This job showed how corrupt the times were because his employer lied to him to get him to dig these tunnels. They said they were for telephones instead of subways to ruin their union. Of course, on the job, Jurgis gets hurt again and can no longer work. It saddened me to see that Jurgis had seemingly hit bottom and had to beg and even steal. Having stolen one hundred dollars, he tries to change it but the bartender only gives him change for one dollar so he attacks him and is put in jail again. This is unfair because he obviously can never rise out of his low position in life. While in jail, he meets Duane again and decides to join in his illegal way of life. Even though illegal, I think this is a good idea because it is the only way to get a fair chance at life. Now, surprisingly, Jurgis was part of the "system" he always had cursed. He worked for Mike Scully who ran Packingtown. Jurgis corrupt job is stealing with Duane or buying votes for Scully. It seems that people of that time got money any way they could, not caring whether they hurt others or not. This shows how corrupt their world was. Only the people contributing to the corruption would ever gain anything in life, unless something was done. The true herd workers never got rewarded and they often times got punished just because they werent part of the "system."

Chapters 7-1

In the first part of these chapters, what shocked me was how just one common mans speech changed Jurgis views and life so dramatically. When he found Marija in a brothel and found out how bad her life was, he goes out one night to just get away and goes to a meeting where he hopes to find a place to stay for a few hours. While there , he is inspired by the speaker, which even surprises himself. This speaker discussed something that even I found interesting. He said how all the working men had to gang up on the leaders of the system. If they did that, they would be stronger than anyone in the world. What surprised me most was how this was such a new idea to everyone. It never occurred to them that since there were so much more of their kind, they were stronger than any of the "leaders," so they were very interested in the ideas behind socialism, as I was too. As Dr. Schliemann was describing his idea of socialism at a meeting, I found myself almost agreeing with everything he said and wondering why the world really could not be that way. He described things from having no competition for classes, to not having to do all of the boring or gross labor of their times, and even to the scientific advancements that would aid everyone, and these things seemed almost too logical. These speeches given across the country seemed to influence others in the same way. The statistics given show that in the next election, the socialist vote almost quadrupled, which shows how quickly the ideas were spreading. The ending to this story surprised me also. Throughout the book, Jurgis encountered one disaster after another, but then after one speech, his life was changed forever. Even his future looked promising. Of course this is a happy ending but it was not expected so it shocked me.

All in all, I would have to say I did not enjoy this book but Sinclair did get his task accomplished of using this novel as a propaganda for socialism because it even convinced me.

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ALCOHOLISM AND INPATIENT TREATMENT

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Alcoholism, also known as alcohol dependence, is a disease that is characterized by the following symptoms

Craving - a strong need, or compulsion to drink

Loss of control - the inability to limit ones

drinking on any given occassion Cheap Custom Essays on ALCOHOLISM AND INPATIENT TREATMENT

Physical dependence - the occurrence of withdrawal

symptoms, such as nausea, sweating, shakiness and

anxiety, when alcohol use is stoped after a period

of heavy drinking

Tolerance - the need for increasing amounts of

alcohol in order to get high

Alcoholism is a chronic, often progressive disease with symptoms that include a strong need to drink despite negative consequences, such as serious job or health problems. Like many diseases it has a generally predictable course, has recognized symptoms and is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. Alcoholism is an equal opportunity disease, striking persons of every economic class and race, both genders and many ages.

Private treatment for alcoholism and drug abuse expanded greatly beginning in the late 170s. Between 178 and 184 the number of beds in private alcoholism treatment centers more than quadrupled. In the 180s, hospitalization of adolescents in private psychiatric facilities for drug and alcohol jumped 450 percent. This has resulted in a tremendous cost, to individuals and the nation. Alcohol is a contributing factor in up to 1/ of road traffic accidents and complicates up to 0 percent of general hospital admissions. Alcoholism is the third leading health problem in the United States.

Inpatient treatment programs for alcoholism are basically approached using similar methods among all facilities. Facilities utilize a multi-disciplinary team of certified counselors and medical professionals to achieve two main objectives,

1. Arrest the disease

. Provide the needed support to the recovery process

Inpatient length of stays can range from twenty-one to ninety days. Inpatient treatment only for detoxification is generally three to four days.

Following are the six main components of inpatient treatment programs.

1.) Assessment and Treatment Planning

.) Education

.) Individual Therapy

4.) Group Therapy

5.) Family Therapy

6.) Introduction to Self-Help Programs

Quitting drinking is only the first step in recovering from alcoholism. Learning to live without alcohol requires adjustment in attitudes, values and lifestyles. Abstinence is the abscence of alcohol, sobriety is a way of life. Recovery begins where formal treatment leaves off, and this lifelong process never ends. ONLINE SOURCES

Betty Ford Center, www.bettyfordcenter.org

Quest Publishing Co., Inc., www.questpub.com

The National Clearinghouse for Alcohol and Drug

Information, www.health.org

National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA),

www.niaa.nih.gov

University of Texas-Houston Health Science Center, www.uth.tmc.edu.html

ARTICLE, MAGAZINE

The Harvard Mental Health Letter, December 16, 8-50. (no vol. or issue number)

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A Netherlandish Carved Altarpiece c. 1510

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A Netherlandish Carved Altarpiece c. 1510

The oak altarpiece of about 1510 from Brussels in the Royal Ontario Museum is attributed to the Borman workshop. Similar to other altarpieces of the time, the corpus assumes the form of an inverted "T". In the central compartment, there is a representation of the Nativity / the Adoration of the Shepherd. The left compartment features Presentation in the Temple, at the moment of Christs circumcision. On the right, we see an image of the Adoration of the Magi. Above the central scene, there is a Coronation of the Virgin. In the bottom compartment contains two prophets holding scrolls of the Holy Scriptures. The retables possible placement on the high altar, where the Eucharist is celebrated, explains the limitation of its subject matters. The carved altarpiece functions as an illustration of the central themes of the Mass, and aid for meditation and a suitable backdrop for the moment of consecration. The examination of the original position and appearance of the reredos provides insight to the ritual practice of the Mass, the religious sentiments and the creative process of the early sixteenth century.

The attention to details, the exotic garments and the twisting poses associate the piece with Jan Borman and his workshop in Brussels. The ROM retable is full of rich surface details. The exquisitely carved figure of the kneeling king in the foreground of the Adoration of the Magi has curvy hair, which the carver describes in fine details. The soldier standing near him whose back is toward the viewer shows the diamond-patterns of his garment. The clothing of the characters also demonstrates an interest in exoticism1. The hats of the three kings are very elaborately decorated with an impression of foreignness. The hat of the oldest king is placed in the central foreground as if the carver is eager to display his ability to realize such wonderful details to the viewer. A few figures in the foregrounds turn their back to us, which is a distinct element of Jan Borman the Elder. The shepherd on the right of the Nativity twists his body exaggeratedly with his back to us turning to his right to acknowledge the Child. He also gestures to the Baby in the centre with his left hand. The figure standing in the front on the extreme right of the Presentation duplicates the posture of the shepherd. Most of the figures in the foreground are sculpted in the round and on an individual block of wood, which demonstrate the characteristics of the Brussels workshops.

According to the images in contemporary paintings and pages from books of hours, carved altarpiece is usually placed behind the high altar. The most frequently quoted source of the location of the wooden reredos is Rogier van der Weydens painted altarpiece Seven Sacraments (fig.1). In the background of the central panel, a priest is shown in front of a sculpted retable, at the moment of consecration. The piece is located about two bays away from the very east end of the church. The building might be a pilgrimage church that has multiple chapels in the choir. People are shown walking around and behind the high altar. However, it is clear that the reredos is placed on the altar, upon which Mass is celebrated. Also, in a miniature depicting Philip the Good at Mass (fig. ), a carved retable in an inverted "T" shape is in front of the priest who is conducting a service.Two arches which suggest the space of two bays are shown behind the curtains that confine the space where the Mass takes place. The reredos also seems to have been installed on the high altar, which is placed right in front of the east end. The piece in ROM might have possibly been installed on an altar in a similar position.

Retables appear to be closely connected with the ritual of the Mass, which commemorates the birth, the life and the death of Jesus Christ. Netherlandish carved altarpieces from Brussels and Antwerp usually consist of narratives from the Infancy of Christ, the Passion and the Life of the Virgin the major themes of the Mass4. The narrative elements of the altarpiece prove further that the reredos plays an important role in the liturgical ceremony. The oak retable in ROM has a cycle of narratives that can be associated with the Incarnation of Christ, which is the central mystery of the Christian faith and is a typical subject for Netherlandish sculpted reredos. The Nativity is depicted in the central compartment of the ROM altarpiece. The scene of Jesuss birth is emphasized by its central position and a higher elevation than the two scenes flanking it. In the moment of consecration, the priest would lift up the wafer facing the centre of the altarpiece as it is shown in the background of van den Weydens Seven Sacraments (fig. 4). The Child lying on the ground is located on the axis, a position approximately coincides with where the wafer may be upon the altar. The congregation would definitely relate the wafer to the Saviour who is represented in the form of flesh in the altarpiece. The wafer, which is transformed into the real flesh of Jesus when consecrated, is juxtaposed with the form of the Child in the altarpiece. The retable gives a visual account of what is said in the Mass therefore it is suitable to be the backdrop to the celebration of the Eucharist5.

The shape of the case of the retable also bares close relation to the consecration of the Host. The altarpiece in ROM assumes the form of an inverted "T" with an elevated centre. It is also seen in The Nordingra Passion altarpiece from Brussels (fig. ), the reredos in Seven Sacraments (fig. 4), and the one in Philip the Good at Mass (fig. ). The inverted "T" shape seems to be the typical form for the body of the Netherlandish carved reredos according to the surviving pieces. The elevation of the central section imitates the priests movement of consecration, when he lifts up the Host. In the early sixteenth century, the climax of the Mass is considered to be the Elevation of the Host instead of the reception of the mass, when the individual consume the wafer and drink the wine6. The shape of the retable emphasizes the most dramatic moment of the ceremony visually.

The carved reredos might also function as a visual attraction that draws the congregations attention to the altar. The services are still said in Latin in early sixteenth century before the reform. The laity who does not know Latin would just sit through the ceremony not understanding what the priest is saying. Thus, having a visual companion that matches the content of the Mass help the lay congregation to concentrate on and to partake in the spiritual experience 7. Arts chief function in the late medieval period is to educate and inform the illiterate people and to enrich their meditation. The retable in ROM depicts the story of Jesuss birth in the manger, His circumcision, and the Adoration of the Magi. These narrative scenes help the viewer to concentrate on the idea that God became flesh and provide many details for meditation. Moreover, the scenes of adoration of the Virgin, the shepherds, and the Magi invite the spectators to do the same to worship the Christ.

The carved altarpiece might very possibly have been gilded in gold and polychromed, though no trace of the original paint can to be found in the piece any more now8. Polychromy is referred to as an indispensable part of Netherlandish sculpted retables in the contracts between artists and their patrons. The unpainted altarpieces are considered as "rough" and "bare", in other words, unfinished. The piece in ROM is very likely one of the many wooden retables sold in the Pand market in Antwerp, where art works and other luxurious objects are displayed from 1460 to 1560. It is probably painted as it is in the case of the other uncommissioned ones that are made between 1400-1550. A polychromed piece is much more desirable than an unpainted one to the churchgoers in the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, when the late medieval taste still prevails. The overall appearance of gold with primary colours such as red, blue, and white, makes altarpieces appear precious like jewels10. Abbot Suger, who is considered the patron of the first completely Gothic11 church, claims that beautiful and multicoloured gems can direct ones meditation to the Divine and to the higher realms1.

Almost simultaneous with the development of altarpieces, private devotion becomes very popular in northern Europe, especially among the laity. Growing numbers of small devotional images in the forms of diptyches, triptychs and multitychs, and the popularity of books of hours indicate a strong desire to confront God directly. The main purpose of artworks in this period of time is to aid the viewer in his meditation that he may experience the Divine. Therefore, a gilded and painted altarpiece with brilliant colours, which suggests a sense of preciousness, is helpful in leading the congregation who sit facing the retable to contemplate God.

Futhermore, to have the retable gilded using gold leaves marks the holiness of the altar, upon which the ritual of the Eucharist is performed. Gold is suggested to be a material that symbolizes God. In Song of Songs, the Shulamite describes her Beloved, who stands for the Lord "His head is like the finest gold" (510). Furthermore, the retable being gilded in gold makes it appear in harmony with the other objects that are on the altar during the Mass, such as chalices, candlesticks, monstrance, which are made in gold also1.

The standardisation of iconography, subject and the overall arrangement of the figures suggest that the retable in ROM as well as many surviving Netherlandish carved altarpieces are made for the open market without commissions. With a few exceptions, all Brabantine carved reredos of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries have an elevated centre, a similarity that is impossible to be overlooked14. Moreover, the subject matter restricts to only Infancy, Passion or the Life of the Virgin. The ROM retable shows the combination of the Infancy and the Life of the Virgin cycles. A Brussels altarpiece of 1510-15 depicting the Life of the Virgin (fig.5) has many similarities with the ROM piece. In both works, the Virgin sits on a throne in the middle; she is holding the Child, facing the viewer frontally. On her left kneels the oldest king; on her right another king dressed in exotic clothing. In the foreground, almost at the same spot lies the hat of the oldest king. However, there are obvious variations the king on the right hand side of the virgin appears fatter in the Life of the Virgin Altarpiece than the one in the ROM retable; there are more characters in the ROM piece than the other one. These differences might be the result of the styles of individual carvers, but the overall design of the two scenes is very similar. These two retable might even come from the same workshop.

In the early sixteenth century, carved altarpieces become luxury goods rapidly produced by ateliers in Brussels and Antwerp. To quicken the process of making wood retables, chores are divided among many sculptors, joiners, and painters15. At less two different sculptors participate in the creative process of the ROM reredos. One artist carves the four angels standing around the Virgin in the Nativity. He might be responsible also for the two angels standing on the columns flanking the corpus and the Virgin and Child statueon top of the piece. The figures sculpted by him are elongated and their garments are in swaying movement. The other sculptor demonstrates more skills in carving details and the figures he makes are more rounded and their clothing has beautiful patterns. He might be in charge of carving the kings in the Adoration of the Magi. A third artist makes the shepherd standing at the right foreground; he might have come from Antwerp because of the twisting forms he applies to the figure. The repetition of the same design and the division of labour speed up the production of the retables, which are much sought after in the market in Antwerp. Furthermore, using patterns from model books can make the process easier. The group of Virgin worshipping the Child with four angels appears to be a direct quote from Hugo van der Goess famous Portinari Altarpiece, 1475. In both cases, the Virgins figure seems larger than others; the Child is lying on the ground and the angles are smaller than the human beings around them. The painting might be copied widely in the late fifteenth century and becomes one of the models in Bormans shop.

The oak altarpiece in ROM might have served as a backdrop for the celebration of Mass, a visual explanation of the mystery of the Incarnation for the laity, and an aid for meditation. The development of the reredos is a result of a desire to confront God directly through contemplating beautiful objects. The ROM retables conventional subject matters, similar design to other contemporary piece and its very typical shape suggest that it might have been produced for the open market instead of on commission.

Notes

1 Kim W. Woods, "Five Netherlandish Carved Altarpieces in England and the Brussels School of Carving c. 1470-150," The Burlingtion Magazine 18 (16)788.

Ibid., 788.

The original location of the altarpiece in the fifteenth and sixteenth century is discussed by Woods and Jacobs in their essays in relation with van der Weydens Seven Sacrements.

4Kim W. Woods, "The Netherlandish Carved Altarpiece c. 1500 Type and Function" in The Altarpiece in the Renaissance, Ed. Peter Humfrey. (New York Cambridge University Press, 10), 86.

5 Lynn F. Jacobs, Early Netherlandish Carved Altarpieces, 180-1550 Medieval Tastes and Mass Marketing, (New York Cambridge University Press, 18), 6-.

6Woods, Altarpiece in the Renaissance, 8.

7Jacobs, Medieval Tastes, 64.

8 Gerard Brett, "A Reredos from the Workshop of Jan Borman at the Royal Ontario Museum of Archeology, Toronto, Canada." Gazette des Beaux-Arts 44 (184) 4.

Jacobs, Medieval Tastes, 84-5.

10Ibid, 4.

11Gothic here means an architectural taste that prefers airiness to weight and brightness to obscurity. A taste that esteems the colourful decoration over the Romanesque severity.

1 Linda Grant, Abbot Suger of Saint Denis Church and State in Early Twelfth-Century France (England Longman, 18), .

1 Jacobs, Medieval Tastes, 4.

14 Lynn F. Jacobs, "The Marketing and Standardization of South Netherlandish Carved Altarpieces Limits on the Role of the Patron," Art Bulletin 71 (18)15.

15Ibid., 15.

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