Men to Mars: Misplaced Priorities

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Since the beginning of time, man has been fascinated with the universe outside of our own planet. A natural urge to explore the extraterrestrial has always engulfed the human spirit. From the early ages of society, man has been particularly intrigued by Mars. The Egyptians referred to it as "the Red One," and the early Babylonians called it the "Star of Death." With modern technology constantly advancing, it has become possible to not only wonder about the marvels of our universe, such as Mars, but it has become possible for man to visit and explore these wonders. The only question remaining is, "Is it worth the time, money, human labor, and much more that would go into a manned mission to Mars?"

Many people hold the answer to this question as an obvious yes, and also believe that we must do this for the sake of mankind. These people, however, are saying this out of ignorance to the facts and due to their primitive exploratory instinct. It is clear to see that they have not taken into consideration all the aspects and components which would go into a manned mission to Mars. It is true that we could gain much from a manned mission, but what we could gain is little more than "bragging rights" in saying that humans landed on Mars. The actual knowledge and human experience which could be gained from a manned mission to Mars is far outweighed by the costs, potential problems associated with the mission, and health risks to the astronauts. Thus, at the current time, humans should not be sent to explore the "Red Planet."

Mans history of actually placing foot on an extraterrestrial body is very limited. Space shuttle Apollo 11, carrying Neil Armstrong and Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin, which was the first manned flight to ever land on the moon set down July 0, 16. Since their exploration, only ten other men have ever walked on the moons surface. (Everything You Ever Wanted to Know About the Moon). These missions have opened new doors for mankind which were previously inaccessible. Moon missions last just over five days, whereas a mission to Mars would last a considerably longer time. Physicists have proved that the shortest possible journey to Mars would last around twenty-one months, nine months each way, and a three month stay on the surface to compensate for the orbit of Mars around the sun in contrast to that of Earth. (Odenwald).

The duration of this mission brings many factors into consideration. First, the cost of the mission would be extreme, and would take money away from important uses on Earth. The initial journey of man to the moon cost NASA close to $5 billion. There is a vast array of estimates ranging anywhere between $0 billion and $1 trillion for the round-trip manned mission to Mars. However, the least expensive of these ways are undoubtedly to be ruled out by NASA, for they involve un-testable, un-guarenteeable, and potentially dangerous ways of travel; these include harvesting fuel from Mars along with other illogical solutions. (Should We Send Men to Mars?) The most recent comprehensive estimate of a manned trip to Mars, a journey taking more than 15 times as long as a mission to the moon to complete, is in the range of $500 billion. (Human Exploration of Mars).Custom writing service can write essays on Men to Mars: Misplaced Priorities

The $500 billion would not all be raised in one year, but rather would be raised over a period of ten years by slight tax increases to the public. Donations would aid to the goal, but would not nearly come close to being entirely sufficient to fund the mission. This is where many questions arise. Would it not be more logical and infinitely more beneficial to mankind if these funds rather than going to an unneeded manned mission to Mars went instead to assist in problems here on Earth? Programs such as Welfare, Social Security, Medicare, and many other financial aids could benefit tremendously from this raise in taxes, should it be issued at all. These issues of securing and protecting the American people are much more important than space travel which would effect far fewer people. Moreover, the pathfinder missions to Mars cost only $ billion to complete and these could be replicated and improved for a cost which is not substantially greater if we need to send anything to Mars. (Should We Send Men to Mars?). Sending probes to Mars as we have done is much more cost effective in the sense that when men are walking on Mars, they are confined to their space suit. This takes away their ability to feel, smell, taste, and hear, and the only other humanly sense left is sight which we can just as efficiently accomplish by means of a robot.

Continuing, there are hundreds upon thousands of potential mechanical problems which could arise and be unfixable in the course of the nearly two-year mission. Human error is always a potential risk when parts and instruments of the shuttle must be designed, measured, and sometimes manufactured by humans. On January 8, 186, Space Shuttle Challenger exploded killing all its members 7 seconds after takeoff. This was, of course, not planned nor expected, and despite many technological advances since this, it is still impossible to predict any catastrophic events like this. (The Crew of the Challenger Shuttle Mission in 186). Along these lines, no manned mission has ever been launched for such a great duration of time. Thus, we are unaware, and can not simulate on Earth the potential effects of a two year trip. Any trip into outer space leaves very little room for human error, but on a mission, the first of its kind, lasting twenty-one months, the margin for error is even less as the chance of error is exponentially greater.

As with all ventures to previously unexplored places, there is also the constant risk of the unknown. NASA can attempt to account for every possible scenario, but there may be unknown effects to the men and machinery once they land on the Martian surface. There are potential effects of space radiation and other dangers, which we may be ignorant to. There will also be neither repair facilities nor specialists on board, and if something is to go wrong, it may be impossible with the available equipment to repair damage to the shuttle. (The Crew for the Manned Mission).

The absence of repair facilities, and the potential mechanical problems is a much more serious threat the threat posed to the health of the astronauts who command this mission. Without medical facilities on board, there would be no way to treat bleeding ulcers, heart attacks, broken bones, and any other medical problem which may occur. Dr. Arnauld Nicogossian confirms, You cannot do telemedicine like we do, or abort (the mission), on the way to Mars, (Space doctors say Whoa to sending people to Mars). These conditions which could be treated on Earth may be fatal without a chance of resuscitation in orbit.

Space radiation is also another fact to be considered when accounting for potential medical dangers in this mission. It is unknown whether space radiation could cause cancer or not in the astronauts, but it is a likely possibility. Nicogossian, NASAs top doctor, is still worried and uncertain to the effects of radiation, and while there is uncertainty, there should not even be a consideration to sending men who could be harmed by unknown causes. Furthermore, Dr. Jerry Linenger questions whether or not astronauts will be fit to walk on Mars when they arrive, let alone be healthy when they return to Earth. Many men who enter space skip or slack on their workouts. This was once thought to be the cause of bone deterioration upon return to Earth, however, new studies show that even those who constantly work out while in orbit lose nearly as much bone mass as those who skip workouts, and they are in a very weakened condition upon their arrival home. (Space doctors say Whoa to sending people to Mars).

Ultimately, there are many concerns associated with a manned mission to explore Mars which cannot be ignored. There are extreme costs; money will be spent which could be put to better use for causes right here on Earth. There are also potential mechanical problems which have affected missions in the past and could possibly negatively impact a mission to Mars. Losses from this of not only money but also human life could be great. Finally, the health risks to the astronauts are great and some dangers are presently unknown. And, until these issues can be resolved, humans should not be sent to explore Mars.

"Everything You Ever Wanted to Know About the Moon." University of Texas. 17 April 000. http//www.tsgc.utexas.edu/everything/moon/.

"Human Exploration of Mars." National Aeronautics and Space Administration. July 17. http//www-sn.jsc.nasa.gov/marsref/contents.html.

Odenwald, Sten. How Long would a Trip to Mars Take?. 17. http//itss.raytheon.com/cafe/qadir/q811.html.

Should We Send Men to Mars? Think Tank. Andrew Walworth. Ben Wattenberg. Television Documentary. PBS, 001.

"Space doctors say Whoa to sending people to Mars." CANOE. 1 July 17. http//www.canoe.ca/MarsMission/jul1_doctors.html.

"The Crew for the Manned Mission." Mars Academy. 1 November 001. http//www.marsacademy.com/crew/crew.html.

"The Crew of the Challenger Shuttle Mission in 186." National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 17. http//www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/Biographies/challenger.html.

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The Fronting Wars continue

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A fronting company is a licensed insurance company that issues an insurance policy and reinsures the risk of loss back to the captive insurer owned by the insured. This allows the insured to benefit from both having a captive insurer and being able to obey regulations that mandate the insurance company that is issuing the policy to be licensed. Furthermore, this licensed insurance company allows the insured to work with other parties that require their insurance company to be rated, whereas this would not be the case in a pure captive situation. However, the market for providing fronting services is becoming dramatically smaller and insurance companies are becoming more tentative to enter into these agreements.

Despite the fact that the use of captives as a risk financing technique is growing at a rapid pace, insurance companies do not seem to have the financial and underwriting resources to provide fronting services. This could possibly be due to the fact that there are fewer insurance companies in the market compared to the past and they have an unwillingness to take on a fronting position while seeing other companies fail, like Frontier and Legion. Despite these "notorious demises," the author argues that insurance companies could make a profit from fronting if they become better secure and paid more attention to the finer details of the reinsurance agreement.

The author forms a very good point that an important consideration an insurance company must make when entering into a fronting situation is to look at the nature of risk of the potential insured and the character, capacity, and capital of the captive owner. Furthermore, to better protect against having to pay for losses because the captive is unable to do so, the insurance company should increase their requirement for liquid cash and cash equivalents as necessary obligations in order to create the policy. On the other side of the picture, insurance companies should also evaluate the motives a company has for forming a captive to make sure that they are doing it for the right reason and that the managers understand how the cash will be handled.

Overall, an insurance company could make money by acting as a fronting company if they took the proper precautions before entering into an agreement. They should not shy away from this opportunity because some companies have failed in the past, but rather look for ways to improve upon their wrongdoings. Basically, if security and management are acceptable and watched then solvency issues can be mitigated, if not eliminated.

Please note that this sample paper on The Fronting Wars continue is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on The Fronting Wars continue, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on The Fronting Wars continue will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Aluminium Smeltering

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Most people take many things around them for granted. They get up in the morning, turn on the light, open their can of peaches then eat the peaches with a spoon. The light goes on magically, the peaches are still fresh in their can to no surprise and it takes little to no effort to lift the light spoon to the mouth. All these things happen or are there thanks to Aluminium. Amazingly enough, aluminium does not magically appear and to be produced lots of raw materials, chemical reactions, money and time are needed.

The process in which aluminium is made involves three complex steps; the mining of bauxite, the refining of aluminia and the smeltering of aluminium.

The first step, mining Bauxite, is planned five years in advance so the areas that are to be mined can be developed. Once mined the Bauxite has to be processed before being shipped to the refineries. In a beneficication plant, fine particles are removed from the Bauxite by screening and washing it. It is then placed on stockpiles before being shipped away.

In the second step aluminium oxide, which is Alumina, is removed from the Bauxite using the Bayer Refining Process. Firstly the bauxite is ground up into fine particles and is mixed with hot, caustic soda (NaOH) solution to dissolve the alumina and some forms of silica. Not dissolved in this process are other elements such as silica, iron and titanium. These are then filtered off.

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The alumina and caustic soda solution is then put into rows of thickener tanks. In the tanks a fine red mud sinks to the bottom as well as the silica, iron and titanium. Remaining alumina trihydrate is then filtered to clean it even more. The solution is then cooled, concentrated and stirred in open top tanks until pure alumina tyhydrate crystals form. To speed up the process pure alumina is added to the mixture to act as a growth site for the crystals. This process can take several days. The alumina trihydrate crystals are then washed and filtered before being heated to 1100 C in kilns, to remove the water molecules. A fine dry powder, alumina is formed, which is then cooled down and stored.

The third step in the process of manufacturing aluminium is smeltering, which is the part of the process, which is done at Tiwai Point in New Zealand at the Comalco Smelter.

To produce aluminium the Aluminium and Oxygen in the Alumina need to be separated. For this reaction to take place the alumina is put into a large, steel furnace, lined with carbon (cathode). These furnaces are known as reduction cells. In the cells the alumina is dissolved in molten cryolite, (NaAl ), which also conducts electricity at approximately 70 C. Electricity is then put into the cells through anodes which are carbon blocks made by smelters. An electric current of about 170 000 amperes is passed through all the cells and the temperature stays at nearly 1000 C. The current flows from the anode, through the alumina/cryolite mixture, the cathode lining and to the anodes in the next cell. The current causes the carbon anode to react with the alumina, forming aluminium and carbon dioxide. The aluminium sinks to the bottom of the cell and sticks to the carbon cathode. It is then siphoned out in a process called tapping and then put in holding furnaces to be cast into products such as pure aluminium or into aluminium alloys.

CROSS SECTION OF POT OF ELECTRIC FURNACE

The diagram below shows a cross section of one of the reduction cells.

It is evident that this process requires many raw materials, which are obtained from many different places from all over the world.

The raw materials required to produce the alumina are Bauxite, Caustic soda, lime, water and electricity. Bauxite, which is ore formed from weathered sedimentary rocks, which contain a large percentage of minerals containing aluminium. The Bauxite is mined in Weipa, on the Cape York Peninsula, Northern Queensland. Here the Bauxite is small, red pebbles or piscolites, approximately 5mm in diameter.

The caustic soda, which is used in the Bayer Process is obtained from the United States, the Middle East and Asia and the electricity, coal, lime and water are found locally. In the refining of the alumina and smeltering of aluminium the raw materials needed are Alumina, Alaska crude oil, coke, pitch cryolite and electricity. The pure Alumina is obtained from Queensland. The crude oil from America and Coal from China and Korea are used to make the coke and pitch required to make the anodes. The Cryolite used to dissolve the alumina is synthetically produces and electricity used for the reduction of alumina to Al is sourced from Lake Manapouri in Fiordland.

During the process a number of chemical reactions take place to transform the raw materials into other things such as Alumina then aluminium.

The key chemical reactions that take place are the dissolving of crushed bauxite in caustic soda, the filtering of Al(OH) then the decomposition . Also the two parallel reactions in which Aluminium is formed.

The filtering of the iron oxide, titania and silica are filtered off using the equations

·Al O + 6NaOH + H O - Na Al(OH)and

·SiO + 4NaOH - Na SiO4 + H O

The insoluble Fe O is insoluble and is filtered out.

Na Al(OH) decomposes into Al(OH) over time which is insoluble and is filtered out.

·Na Al(OH) + H O - NaOH + Al(OH) H O

Decomposed under extreme temperatures to produce alumina.

·Al(OH) HO - Al O + H O

Aluminium is produced using these two parallel reactions.

·Al O + C - Al + CO

·Al O + C - 4Al +CO

The process in which aluminium is made is the same in smelters around the world, although the scrubbing system, which is used at the New Zealand smelter, is currently the best one in the world.

Various waste materials are also produced during the process and they are dealt with in different ways.

In the second step of the process of manufacturing aluminium, during clarification, a red mud is formed which is a waste product. It is washed with water then put into ponds called tailings dams. Also in the process of smeltering the aluminium, carbon anodes, which are used, are recycled by being reformed and used again. Offgasses from the reduction step are cleaned to remove contaminants and are then released into the atmosphere. Primary aluminium, itself, is also recycled by being melted down and forming new products.

Aluminium is a very light and durable metal, which is a very good conductor of heat and electricity. It is easily shaped through moulding and extruding. Its main advantages are that compared with other metals it has a low density and it forms an oxide layer, which prevents it from reacting with oxygen in the air so a surface protection coating is not necessary. Therefore because of its many beneficial characteristics, aluminium is used for many things including uses in the transport, construction, packaging and electrical industries. Aluminium is used in the transport industry because of its lightness, which enables more metal to be used. In the packaging industry it is used for cans and tops, foil, drink cartons and as packaging for pharmaceuticals. It is used for electrical conductors, heat exchangers and cooking utensils as well as roofing and wall cladding. . Aluminium is also made into alloys, which improve its properties. Many alloys are lighter and corrosion resistant.

The aluminium, which is produced at the smelter, is a very economical and environmentally friendly product. It is easily recycled, by being melted and casted into new products, without loosing any of its properties, which means it is very economical. The recycled or secondary aluminium only uses five per cent of the energy used to produce the primary aluminium from Bauxite. Alumimium cans are one of the most important products made by secondary aluminium. Also because of aluminiums light, strong and pliable characteristics it is easily transported and requires less energy to manufacture it into products. This means significant energy cost savings for the industry. When costs of production decrease, supply increases (a little economic theory) and therefore more aluminium products are produced. Another environmental benefit is that lighter cars can be produced from aluminium, which consume less fuel and put out less pollution into the atmosphere.

To produce aluminium a lot people, time, money, raw materials and equipment are needed. In 17 the Tiwai smelter produced approximately 08,000 tonnes of aluminium. The smelter gets shipped over 750,000 tonnes of raw materials to a special wharf opposite Bluff Harbour. More than 700 megawatts of electricity is used at the smelter, which is 5% of New Zealands total generating capacity. There are 00 employees working at the smelter. 660 reduction cells are continuously operating with some 48 cells using technology. The technology is the most efficient in the world.

From all the information above it is clear that aluminium is made in a very complex process involving many peoples’ time and the efficiency of machinery.

Next time you get up in the morning, turn on your light and eat your can of peaches, remember that the electricity for your light is passing through aluminium wires, your peaches are sitting in one of the most important aluminium products and your spoon is probably light thanks to an alloy of aluminium.

REFERENCES

·VIII-Metals-D-Aluminium Production

·www.comalco.com.au

·Beginning Chemistry- Anne wignall & Terry Wales

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